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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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Hollinger Corp. 
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Connecticut School Document 

. No. 12—1904 



(WHOLE NUMBER — 252) 



Report on the study of English language and 

literature in elementary and 

secondary schools 




I9O4 

Monograph. 



( 2 ) 



MEMBERS 



STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION 



1904 



Abiram Chamberlain Governor 
Henry Roberts Lieut-Governor 
William H Palmer Jr 
GeorM M Carrington 
William G Sumner 
Edward D Robbins 




Meriden 

Hartford 

Norwich 

Winsted 

New Haven 

Wethersfield 



Charles D Hine Secretary Hartford 
Asahel J Wright Clerk 



OFFICE 

Room 42 Capitol Hartford 

SF 012 






CONTENTS 

Page 
Preliminary Statement ...... 3 



Reading in the Elementary Schools .... 4 

i Primary grades: What is meant by reading — 
The importance of thought as a basis for the reading 
process — Desirable conditions for teaching beginners to 
read — Suggestions for method of teaching beginners to 
read — Sources from which to obtain the subject-matter 
for first reading lessons ■ — ■ Plan for a first lesson in rote 
reading — A word study preparatory to reading — Sugges- 
tions for conducting a silent reading lesson — Summary 
of the essential characteristics of the preceding lessons — 
Exercises for giving the pupils clear visual images of sen- 
tences and words — - Exercises for impressing the forms of 
new sentences and words — Seat work related to primary 
reading — Suggestions concerning the selection of good 
reading matter for beginners — Phonics 

ii Reading in the grammar grades : What shall the 
pupils of the grammar grades read — The use of literary 
wholes in the grammar grades — The place of graded series 
of readers — Information readers — ■ Kinds of reading ex- 
ercises — Amount of reading to be done — Suggestions for 
treating directed reading lessons (assignment of work) — 
A word study in detail — -Speeches (plan of treatment) — 
Suggestions for securing intelligent and intelligible oral 
reading 

iii Lists of books for school reading by grades 

II 

Elementary Composition ...... 36 

General suggestions : Intimate relation existing be- 
tween language and thought — The main work of the 
school (science, history, etc.) should furnish most of the 
material that is to be talked about and written about — 
Value of dictation, reproduction, and original composition 
— Ways of overcoming bad habits of expression — Prep- 
aration for writing — Spelling, punctuation, and other 
conventionalities — Criticism and correction of written 
work — Influence of good literature 

Detailed directions : First oral work — First written 
work — Question and answer exercises based upon selec- 
tions from reading matter — Composition based upon ma- 
terial furnished by the daily school work 
Topics for special treatment 



Ill 

Spelling ........ 44 

Four habits the formation of which leads to correct 
spelling — Emphasizing spelling — The distinct features 
of spelling exercises — Study with teacher's aid — Drill — 
Independent study — Work of the first school years — 
Testing — Home work 

IV 
English Grammar ....... 53 

Why the study of English grammar should be pursued 
— How the study of English grammar should be pre- 
sented — When in the elementary schools the study of 
formal grammar should be pursued — A course in gram- 
mar outlined — Suggestions 

V 
The Study of Literature in the High School . . .58 

Purpose of all English study defined — Courses recom- 
mended — Character of books to be read — Text-books — 
General suggestions in regard to how to study literature — 
A plan for studying Silas Marner — A plan for studying 
the De Coverley papers — A plan for studying Concilia- 
tion Speech — A plan for studying a play — A few sug- 
gestions regarding the study of poetry 

VI 
Composition in the High School . . . . .71 

i General statement : The twofold nature of train- 
ing in composition — Equipment and preparation of a 
teacher of composition 

ii Oral composition : Importance of drill in oral 
composition — The teacher's influence — Training in oral 
expression belongs to no one department — Training 
through study of literature — Special exercises. 

iii Written composition : Limits of the secondary 
course — Preliminary suggestions ■ — Various exercises 
available for training in composition — Criticism and com- 
ment — Cooperation with other studies — ■ Opportunities 
of the small high school 

VII 

Suggestions for Courses in Literature and Composition . 93 
i Regular course (three recitations a week 

THROUGHOUT THE FOUR YEARS ) 

ii Elective course (five recitations a week during 

THE LAST TWO YEARS ) 

iii Lists for supplementary reading 

VIII 
Bibliography .....••• I0 4 



(3) 



Report on the Study of English Language 

and Literature in Elementary and 

Secondary Schools 



At a meeting of the Connecticut Council of Education held 
October, 1902, the president of the Council was empowered 
to appoint a committee to prepare a report which should " de- 
velop a consistent and symmetrical course of study in English 
language and literature from the beginning of instruction in 
reading to the most advanced work of the high schools, duly 
regarding both the grammatical and linguistic and the literary 
side of the work." 

The committee originally appointed consisted of the follow- 
ing: Rev. Huber G. Buehler, The Hotchkiss School, Lake- 
ville; Mr. W. B. Ferguson, Superintendent of Schools, Mid- 
dletown; Mr. Wilbur F. Gordy, Principal of Second North 
Grammar School, Hartford; Miss Caroline M. Hewins, Hart- 
ford Public Library; Mr. Alfred M. Hitchcock, Hartford 
Public High School ; Mr. Stuart H. Rowe, Ph.D., Supervising 
Principal of Lovell School District, New Haven; Miss Sarah 
J. Walter, State Normal School, Willimantic; Mr. Marcus 
White, Principal of State Normal School, New Britain; Pro- 
fessor C. T. Winchester, Wesleyan University. Soon after 
the committee began its work, Mr. Gordy and Mr. Buehler 
were forced by pressure of other duties to resign. Their 
places were taken by Mr. Charles G. Osgood, Ph.D., Yale 
University, and Mr. J. C. Knowlton, Supervising Principal of 
Winchester School District, New Haven. Professor Win- 
chester has been able to attend but few meetings of the com- 
mittee, yet he has been consulted from time to time and has 
rendered valuable service. 

The committee presents herewith the results of its labor 
in the form of a number of reports on the various branches of 
English study. No attempt has been made to fuse these re- 



4 

ports into a single harmonious statement, nor to prescribe, in 
any hard and fast manner, precisely what the work of each 
year should be. The final task of formulating a course of 
study in English — it may be different with other studies — 
must, after all, be done by the teacher himself, not by any com- 
mittee unacquainted with local conditions. It is hoped, how- 
ever, that in the following pages will be found ideals suffi- 
ciently high yet attainable, principles of pedagogy that are 
sound, and profitable suggestions in regard to ways and means 
of accomplishing desired results ; material, in short, that will 
help the teacher who is trying to plan a simple, definite, closely 
interrelated course of English study. That the course should 
be simple, definite, and closely interrelated the committee 
wishes particularly to emphasize. A final word of caution 
may be necessary. While the substance of each separate re- 
port has been discussed by the entire committee and meets with 
its general approval, no doubt undue emphasis may have been 
placed unintentionally on this or that branch of English study, 
and a separateness indicated which does not exist. This was 
inevitable in a long report prepared not by a single person but 
by a number of individuals. 



I 

READING IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 

i 

PRIMARY GRADES 
WHAT IS MEANT BY READING 

Reading in the true sense of the term is a mental process. 
It is gaining thought from written or printed characters. 

THE IMPORTANCE OF THOUGHT AS A BASIS FOR THE READING PROCESS 

The first school work usually done by the child is learning 
to read. This is the beginning of his formal education and is 
most important, because through it the child is forming his 



5 

intellectual habits. No other agency employed by the teacher 
for instructing- and training the pupil will prove so effective in 
arousing and promoting good thought as the intelligent teach- 
ing of reading. 

The true teaching of reading should begin with thinking on 
the part of the child, and his attitude from the first should be 
to look for thought when the printed page is placed before him. 
"If this habit fail of initiation in the first year there is, for the 
average child, but slender chance of its afterward being in- 
duced with real vigor and power." — Laing. 

DESIRABLE CONDITIONS FOR TEACHING BEGINNERS TO READ 

a The possession upon the part of the children of clear 
thought based upon experiences to associate with the words. 

b Interest. Interest is the only true condition for atten- 
tion, and interest is dependent upon a clear understanding of 
the thought. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR METHOD OF TEACHING BEGINNERS TO READ 

By method of teaching reading is meant the whole manner 
of directing the child's activity in the process of learning to 

read. 

It is not the intention to discuss in detail the so-called sys- 
tems of teaching reading, viz: the phonic, word, sentence, 
word and sentence, and sentence and word. The teacher of 
little children should be familiar with all of these methods of 
teaching reading so that she may be able to take the essential 
truth that underlies each of these methods and give it due prac- 
tical definition in her work. She will then be able to make 
adequate provision for meeting in a natural way the difficulties 
of teaching beginners to read. 

From a study of the several methods an individual method 
should be evolved — a method comprehensive enough to reach 
the varying types of mind. 

SOURCES FROM WHICH TO OBTAIN THE SUBJECT-MATTER FOR FIRST READ- 
ING LESSONS 

. The oral story work, science lessons, poems, Mother Goose 
melodies, children's toys and pets, and the first reading book 
to be used may form the basis for the early reading lessons. 

There is no question but that the story or poem furnishes 
the most interesting matter for the early lessons. Children are 



interested in the story, in rhythm, and in their toys and pets. 
The oral story and poem have the advantage of being interest- 
ing in themselves, and that which is familiar to the ear is more 
easily learned through the eye. 1 

Many primary teachers make little or no use of poetry ; 
others pass it by. A small number have found that the short 
poem or jingle is a fascinating kind of reading for beginners. 
This committee would emphasize a generous use of poetry in 
the elementary grades. The writer of the preface in Book II 
of the Heart of Oak Series says : " His very first reading 
should mainly consist in what may cultivate his ear for the 
music of verse, and may rouse his fancy. And to this end 
there is nothing better than the rhymes and jingles which have 
sung themselves, generation after generation, in the nursery 
or on the playground." 

FIRST READING LESSONS 

The following plans are suggestive of what may be done 
by way of teaching little children to read : 

I PLAN FOR A FIRST LESSON IN ROTE READING 

Aim To accustom the ear to the sounds, the eye to the 
word forms, and the voice to the oral expression of the Mother 
Goose rhyme of " Little Boy Blue." 

Reading matter 

Little Boy Blue, come blow your horn; 

The sheep's in the meadow, the cow's in the corn. 

Plan Interest is gained by having pictures of sheep and 
cows in a meadow (this is not necessary in the country) , accom- 
panied by a short conversation about these animals. 

The teacher will then recite the entire rhyme of " Little 
Boy Blue." After this she will repeat somewhat slowly and 
with good expression the first verse of the lesson, and tell the 
children that she will show them how that looks on the black- 
board. The teacher then prints on the board " Little Boy Blue, 
come blow your horn," saying the words as she prints them. 
A child is now called upon to read, the teacher showing with 
the pointer the whole of what has been printed. If the child 



^Vhen reading lessons are taken from the oral story work care 
should be given to form and presentation of the oral story; the story 
must precede the reading and stand out clearly in the child's mind. 



hesitates, the teacher will read it for him, passing the pointer 
along the entire expression as she reads. The child will then 
try. This exercise, varied in form, is continued until the chil- 
dren have gained a visual image of the parts that make the 
whole. 

The teacher may emphasize the parts by calling upon dif- 
ferent children to find the parts as she names them, as Find 
" Little Boy Blue." Which part is " Come blow your horn " ? 
Similar work is done with other parts. 

In the next reading lesson the same verse is printed on the 
board and the next verse added if the children are ready for it. 

The seat work should be related to the reading lesson printed 
on the board. The words of which the lesson consists (and 
only these) are in envelopes or boxes, a box or envelope for 
each child. The children arrange the words in the right order 
to form the rhyme. The children's work should be seen by 
the teacher and some questioning done to find out how many 
of the word forms are known. 

In the early lessons, word studies to teach the words should 
follow and not precede the reading lesson. 

Print is recommended until children take the book to read. 
Experience leads the writer of this report to believe that print 
more economically fits the child for a book than script, although 
children readily learn to read script. 

The following lesson suggests a plan for using the chil- 
dren's toys as a basis for the first reading lessons. 

The lessons related to the toys should generally prepare 
directly for the book subsequently to be used. The teacher 
should keep a record, in a notebook, of all words taught, and 
arrange the same in alphabetical order. This record enables 
her to keep before her for review the printed vocabulary given 
to the children and to combine the words she is teaching into 
many sentences. 

Aim To acquaint the children with the printed form and 
oral expression of each of the following sentences : 

This is a ball. This is a horn. 

This is a top. This is a doll. 

Lesson plan The objects named in the sentences should be 
upon a table near the children. 

The objects are given to the children ; a child is called upon 
to show what he has and tell what it is — savins: the form 



8 

' This is," etc. The statement made by the child is printed 
upon the board. This statement is now read by the child who 
made it. Similar work is done until the four statements are 
printed upon the board. 

The objects are placed in the hands of different children 
and they each read the appropriate sentences. If a child hesi- 
tates, the teacher should show him the right sentence (pointing 
to the entire sentence). 

The objects are exchanged several times and the reading 
continued as before. 

The sentences relating to the objects should now be printed 
several times on the board (the first series to remain) arranged 
in different order. The children find sentences that are simi- 
lar to those to which the teacher points. 

The teacher may point to a sentence and ask the child to 
find the toy about which that sentence tells (use sentence not 
"story"). The teacher may take the ball and say, "This is 
a ball." A child will find that sentence as many times as it is 
printed on the board. The sentences may be printed on slips 
of paper and distributed. Each child will find the object 
named in his sentence and read the sentence. These slips may 
be matched with the blackboard sentences and they may also 
be exchanged several times during the lesson. 

Use objects until the printed sentences stand for real ex- 
periences. 

2 A WORD STUDY PREPARATORY TO READING 

Aim To teach the recognition of the printed forms and 
oral expression of 

a ball a doll 

The ball is placed in a child's hand and he is asked what 
it is. The teacher will now say the words " a ball " as she 
prints them on the board. The same kind of work is done for 
" a doll." " A ball " and " a doll " are printed in many places 
on the board and the children tell what is printed. Many 
words unknown to the children are printed with these and the 
children select the words " a ball " and " a doll." Many drills 
should be used to impress the forms. See suggestive drill 
exercises 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 11, 15, and Note. 

The seat work should be related to this lesson. 

The leading aim in all of the preceding exercises has been 
to train the child to look for somethinof in the lesson and ex- 



pect to find it. The attention is centered on thought-getting - . 
A great deal may be taught by what may be called an incidental 
or rote method. (See first exercise Little Boy Blue.) Poems 
memorized by the children may be printed upon the board or 
a manila chart ; the names of the children may be printed upon 
the board, indicating in this way who are to read ; directions 
may be written, the new names in the number lesson, the name 
of the story told, etc. All of these exercises, if followed up, 
lead the children to be alert and responsive concerning printed 
and written matter. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR CONDUCTING A SILENT READING LESSON 

The children are directed to open their books to a certain 
page indicated by the teacher. It is a good plan to express the 
figures representing the number of the page upon the board. 

The children should now read silently, without interruption 
by questions from the teacher. At the close of the silent read- 
ing the books should be closed and the children given an 
opportunity to tell in a connected way what they have read. 
At first the lesson may consist of only one sentence, then sev- 
eral sentences grouped according to thought. Unrelated sen- 
tences should be avoided in an exercise of this kind. Later a 
longer selection may be used. When children are able to 
write, the written expression of the silent reading may some- 
times be used instead of the oral. 

At first the children may be inclined to give the exact words 
of the author in their reproduction. This need not give the 
teacher any uneasiness. By selecting a new lesson and direct- 
ing the children to read it silently and then look on their books 
while she tells what she has read, the teacher may in a short 
time help the children to reproduce fluently and partly in their 
own language the story read. 

SUMMARY OF THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PRECEDING READING 
LESSONS 

The sentence is used from the beginning. 

The thought of the sentence is made clear by the use of 
suitable objects or by appealing to the experiences of the 
children. 

Clear, distinct oral expression of a sentence is secured be- 
fore any attempt is made by the teacher to write that sentence. 

The oral expression is associated with the written expres- 
sion. 



10 

The eye is trained to look through the parts of the sentence. 
No attempt should he made to read orally until the word rec- 
ognition of the sentence is complete. This forms the habit of 
fluent utterance. 

The symbol or written form suggests the thought. To 
secure fluent oral expression the eye must be trained to look 
ahead of the word utterance. 

After a few lessons in reading the sentence as a sentence 
whole, the children recognize the parts of which it is com- 
posed, viz : the words and letters. Advantage is taken of this 
analysis to introduce into the daily program word and phonic 
exercises. In the word studies the new words of the reading 
lesson are taught in their form and significance. The word 
study is not a part of the reading lesson and should not be 
given in connection with it. After the first lessons it should 
precede the reading lesson and not follow it. 

In phonics such aid is given as will enable children to dis- 
cover and pronounce new words at sight. Not a few of the 
difficulties met by the child in mastering the mechanics of 
reading will be removed when his ear is trained to hear the 
correct sound. 

Letters are taught at the proper time for use in spelling and 
dictionary work. 

The great need in the early work of reading is not elabo- 
ration of method, but rather an abundant supply oi suitable 
reading matter and many opportunities to use it. 

EXERCISES FOR GIVING TO PUPILS CLEAR VISUAL IMAGES OF SENTENCES AND 
WORDS 

In order that the mind may be able to give itself to the 
author's thought in reading, it must be as nearly as possible 
unconscious of the visual perception of words. Complete and 
instant word recognition alone makes this possible. Daily ex- 
ercises of a rapid, decided, vigorous character should be car- 
ried on to train the child in quick recognition of words and 
sentences. 

" A reader has at each moment but a limited amount of 
mental power available. To recognize and interpret the sym- 



Note — In teaching beginners to read all the essential truths of 
each partial method are needed. It makes little difference which is 
taken first, the word or the sentence, if the teacher's method is dom- 
inated by the idea that the child is working with thought and the sen- 
tence is the unit of expression. 



II 

bols presented to him requires part of. this power; to arrange 
and combine the images suggested requires a further part ; and 
only that part which remains can be used for realizing the 
thought conveyed. Hence, the more time and attention it 
takes to receive and understand each sentence, the less time 
and attention can be given to the contained idea ; and the less 
vividly will that idea be conceived. " — Herbert Spencer. 

The word and sentence drills should aim to give pupils 
power to do the best of which they are capable in 

quick, accurate recognition of printed form 

quick, accurate sound imaging 

quick recognition of the parts of the sentence and of 
the sentence as a whole. 

EXERCISES FOR IMPRESSING THE FORMS OF NEW SENTENCES AND WORDS 

GRADE I 

1 The teacher selects an object and a child finds the sen- 
tence upon the blackboard about that object and reads it orally. 

2 The teacher points to a sentence on the blackboard and 
a child finds the objects and reads the sentence orally. 

3 The teacher reads a sentence from the blackboard (not 
pointing) and a child finds the sentence. 

4 The teacher says, " I am thinking of a sentence on the 
blackboard. You may try to find the sentence of which I am 
thinking, May." May takes the pointer and pointing to each 

sentence in turn says, "Is it ?" (reading the sentence). 

The teacher says, " No, it is not , until the sentence of 

which she has thought has been found and read. The work 
must be rapid and without hesitation upon the part of the child. 

5 The same as " 4," children taking the place of the 
teacher. 

6 Sentences corresponding to those upon the board are 
printed on strips of paper. The strips of paper are distributed 
to the children. As the teacher points to a sentence on the 
board the child who has the sentence corresponding to it rises 
and reads from his strip of paper. 

7 The same sentence is printed or written on the black- 
board several times. A child finds and reads the sentence as 
many times as it occurs on the board. 

8 A sentence on a strip of paper is held before the chil- 
dren for a few moments. A child is called upon to read. If 
he reads correctly, the paper is given to him. This is con- 



12 

tinned until all the strips are given out. Each child retains 
all the strips on which he knows the sentences. The children 
exchange with each other and read the sentences on the strips. 

9 A sentence is erased from the board. A child tells the 
sentence erased. 

10 Sentences expressing action are printed or written 
upon the board. As the teacher points to a'sentence, the child 
will do what it directs. 

Sentence : I can run. The child runs. 
ii Sentences upon cards are distributed to the children. 
As the teacher prints a sentence upon the board the child who 
has the sentence corresponding to it rises and reads from his 
card. 

12 Words printed on cards are distributed to the children. 
The teacher prints or writes a sentence upon the board. The 
children build that sentence with the words. Care must be 
used to see tha| capitalization and punctuation are properly- 
used upon the children's cards. 

13 Children recall from memory the sentences taught. 

14 Two sentences very nearly alike are placed before the 
children. The teacher reads one and a child finds the one read. 

15 Arrange words in two duplicate columns, except that 
the order of words is changed. Two children, each having a 
pointer, shall see which can first point to a word pronounced 
by the teacher. 

16 The teacher has the words taught written or printed 
(large letters) on cards. Show the cards for the rapid pro- 
nunciation of words, each child in turn responding. The cards 
may be given to the children as they recite. 

17 The teacher arranges the words on a ladder. Each 
child tries to climb the ladder without falling. This is done 
by naming all the words without a mistake. 

18 The teacher writes a list of words forming a sentence 
on the board. The children then point to one word after an- 
other to form the sentence. 1 

19 The words on the board are erased, one by one, and 
the child tells what word is erased. 

20 A child finds and pronounces all the words on the 
board containing a given letter, as e, h, etc. 



1 Be careful of capitalization and punctuation in each drill. 



13 

21 The teacher gives orally a short sentence, using words 
that are on the board. Children find the words. 

22 The teacher points rapidly to words on the board that 
make a sentence. A child gives the sentence. 

GRADE II 

i Have pupils look through a paragraph and tell what 
has been read. 

2 Have pupils look through a sentence or paragraph and 
act out the meaning. 

3 Have pupils read a paragraph silently and illustrate the 
meaning by drawings or a series of drawings. 

4 Arrange words in two duplicate columns, except that 
the order of the words is changed. Two children, each having 
a pointer, shall see which can first point to a word pronounced 
by the teacher. 

£ The teacher writes a list of words forming a sentence 
on the board. The children then point to one word after an- 
other to form the sentence. 

6 The words on the board are erased, one by one, and the 
child tells what word was erased. 

7 Words are grouped in columns alphabetically. The 
children find a given group, the teacher naming the letter. 

8 A child finds and pronounces all the words on the board 
containing a given letter, as e, h, etc. 

9 A child finds all words with a given ending or begin- 
ning. This is an excellent drill for prefixes and suffixes. 

io The teacher points to a word. The child gives an 
original sentence containing that word. The child may write 
his sentence. 

1 1 The teacher gives a short sentence orally, using words 
that are on the board. Children find the words. 

12 The teacher points rapidly to words on the board that 
make a sentence. A child gives the sentence. 

13 The teacher gives the meaning of a word on the board. 
A child finds and pronounces the word of which the teacher 
gave the meaning. 



GRADE III 



i Let the pupils find words containing the same sotmd and 
pronounce each one. This exercise is to be used with board 
work or book. 



14 

2 The teacher asks a child to pronounce a word on the 
board and tell him if she erased the word pronounced. The 
teacher will erase words other than the one pronounced by the 
child. Each time the wrong word is erased the child will say, 
" That is not . You erased ." 

3 A child finds and pronounces all the words On the board 
containing a given letter, as e, h, etc. 

4. A child finds all words with a given beginning or end- 
ing. This is an excellent drill for prefixes and suffixes. 

5 The teacher points to a word. The child gives an orig- 
inal sentence containing that word. The child may write his 
sentence. 

6 The teacher gives the meaning of a word on the board. 
A child finds and pronounces the word of which the teacher 
gave the meaning. 

7 The teacher points to a word on the board ; a child finds 
the word in his book and reads the sentence containing the 
word to which the teacher pointed. 

SEAT WORK BELATED TO PRIMARY READING 

G#ADE I 

i Prepare sets of hektographed pictures with the name of 
the object printed plainly beneath the picture. Each set should 
contain twice as many cards as there are pupils in the class. 
Take half of each set and cut off the name. Now let the Chil- 
dren with the uncut cards before them match the separated 
pictures with their appropriate names. 

2 Hektograph sentences on strips of cardboard. Cut 
these sentences into words or phrases and put each sentence into 
its own envelope. Write or print the sentence on the board 
and let the children build. 

3 Provide worn-out books, magazines, advertisements, 
etc. which can be cut up. Provide blank-books, one for each 
child. Print the letters of the alphabet on the board. Let the 
children find them, cut them out, and paste them neatly in 
order, A at top of page 1, B at top of page 2, etc. to Z. 

New words occurring in the reading lesson may be printed 
or written on the board ; the children may find these words, cut 
them out, and paste them on the proper page. This will give 
each child the printed vocabulary of his grade. 

4 Hektograph sets of poems and jingles on cards — twice 
as many as there are children. Cut half these cards into lines* 



i5 

Put a whole card and a dissected card into the same envelope. 
Let the children build the poem. 

Sometimes the poem may be cut into words or phrases. 

5 Print plainly the letters of the alphabet, making more 
of those letters that are oftenest used. Hektograph a large 
number of copies. Cut the letters apart. Put several alpha- 
bets in the same box. From the letters in the boxes let the 
children build words that the teacher writes on the board. 

6 The teacher may write a sentence on the board with one 
word omitted. The children may build the sentence from hek- 
tographed words given them, supplying the missing word. 

7 Words on the board may be copied by the children. 
This form of seat work should not be used very often. 

8 Send children to the board to copy words or sentences 
on the board. 

9 Sentences related in thought but on separate slips may 
be built so as to form a short story. 

io From material in the word-boxes build sentences from 
the reader, using the reader. 

ii The singular form of nouns whose plurals are formed 
by adding s may be written upon the board ; let the children 
build the plural form by adding s. 

GRADE II 

i Write on the blackboard or on paper all the words of 
the reading lesson beginning with a certain letter. 

Instead of writing on the board, the material in the boxes 
may be used. 

2 Build sentences from words that are on the blackboard. 
The teacher must be careful concerning capitalization and 
punctuation. 

3 The children may make dictionaries or word books as 
in Grade I, " 3," writing the words instead of cutting and 
pasting. 

4 Arrange the words of a paragraph in alphabetical order. 

5 Build or write in columns all the words containing a 
given sound. 

6 Illustrate the reading lesson b)^ means of drawing. 

GRADE III 

i Let the children make dictionaries as in Grade II. 
2 Illustrate reading lessons by means of drawings. 



i6 

3 Words written upon the board promiscuously, so far as 
the initial letter is concerned, are to be grouped alphabetically 
in columns, each group with the initial letter at its head. 

4 Write words on the board, each word to be written in a 
sentence by the pupils. 

5 The reading lesson may be written in the child's own 
words, the book to be used. 

6 Arrange the words of a paragraph in alphabetical order. 

7 Construct a story from words on the board. The words 
on the board should be taken from some short story. 

8 Copy from the reader for form and punctuation. 

9 Make words from a given word, as use — used — uses 
— use less — ■ use ivi, etc. 

io Write in columns all words containing a given phono- 
gram. 

ii Select words that are names from the reading lesson. 
Write each name in an original sentence. 

12 Write sentences about the picture related to the read- 
ing lesson. 

13 Copy the picture of the reading lesson. 

SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING THE SELECTION OF GOOD READING MATTER FOR 
BEGINNERS 

As many books intended for use in the primary schools are 
examples of bad workmanship, it is worth while to call atten- 
tion to a few points in connection with the mechanical and 
literary features of the reading book to be put into the hands 
of little children. 

The binding should be firm and the covers not inartistically 
colored and decorated. 

The paper should be of good quality and not too highly 
glazed. 

The illustrations should not interfere with the text either 
as to arrangement or number. Sentences broken by pictures 
interfere with smooth oral expression. 

The sentences should be short and grouped according to 
literary thought. The child enjoys a whole as much as the 
adult. The unit or whole at first may not include more than 
two or three sentences. 

The new words occurring in lessons should be alphabet- 
ically arranged at the head of the printed lessons. 

The print should be clear. 



17 

The lines should be generously leaded. 

The reading matter should be adapted to the child's intelli- 
gence, tastes, interests, and the needs of his emotional nature. 

So far as possible, the matter selected for the reading hour 
should be drawn from writings that by virtue of their beauty, 
strength, and purity of thought have become classic. 

In the reading course outlined by grades no attempt has 
been made to relate the reading work to other subjects of study, 
e. g.j science and history. The reading course is presented 
solely on its own merits as literature. Information readers in 
geography, botany, literature, etc. have not been placed in the 
courses suggested for the grades. The place for the history 
reader is in connection with history. The place for the science 
reader is in the science class after an objective study of the 
subjects treated in the science reader. 



The phonic method of teaching reading places emphasis 
upon " The sounds of the letters." By a careful, discriminat- 
ing use of phonic exercises a child is enabled to accumulate 
quite readily a large number of words. It is important in 
phonics to give attention to some organized plan of constructive 
work. The words taught should be for use in reading. 

Attention should be given to the habits of enunciation and 
pronunciation that children are forming. Defects in enun- 
ciation and pronunciation may be due to defects of vocal 
organs, imitation of incorrect sounds, failure of a child to use 
lips and jaws, or defective hearing. 

The sooner children are taught to discriminate and make 
the sounds of the language correctly, other things being equal, 
the sooner they will begin to show discrimination in their oral 
reading. 

Many children do not articulate words with care, and the 
result is slovenly speech. To be assured of the accuracy of 
the foregoing statement, listen (without a book) to the reading 
of pupils in many grammar grades, to the speech in ordinary 
conversation, and to the everyday recitation. There should be 
a time in our schools when attention is given to the correction 
of faulty articulation, nasal tones, and the monotone. The force 
of habit should be in the right direction in matters of voice 
and enunciation. Correct vocalization should be automatic. 



i8 

This report gives emphasis to the use of phonics as an aid 
to correct faulty articulation. 

In a plan for teaching phonics the following kinds of work 
should be considered : 

a Exercises for training the ear to discriminate sounds. 

b Exercises for training the voice to reproduce sounds cor- 
rectly. 

c Exercises for giving children representations % of sounds 
and of associating the same with known sounds in words. 

d Exercises in blending. Through these the child learns 
to discover words. Phonic work fails as an aid to word dis- 
covery if this part of the work is weak. Blending has but one 
object, viz: to lead to the discovery of words. 

e The phonograms to be taught and the sources from 
which to obtain them. 

Suggestions for a, b, c, d, e: 

a Exercises for training the ear to discriminate sounds. 

i The teacher may pronounce a word, emphasizing the 
final sound. The child imitates. This same exercise may be 
modified and made more difficult by the use of a sentence in- 
stead of a word. The sentence should be given in moderate 
time and with good inflection. Great care must be used by the 
teacher in insisting upon the child's giving clear, decided enun- 
ciation. 

2 The. teacher may give a sentence, spelling one or more 
words by sound, as L-i-t-tle boy, come, bl-ow your h-orn. The 
child will tell the teacher what she has said. 

3 Consonant and vowel sounds are given (no representa- 
tion on the board) by the teacher ; the child imitates. 

4 Singing exercises are especially valuable for sound 
work. 1 

b Same as a, using longer selections. 

c, d When the children know that spoken words consist 
of sounds and are able to imitate with a fair degree of accuracy 
the exercises given by the teacher in a and b they are ready to 
associate the representation (letter or letters) with the sound 
or sounds. 

The following exercise is suggestive of what may be done 
in c. 



1 In all of this work the children should be shown how to correctly 
place and use the speech organs. 



19 

The teacher tells the children to watch her mouth; she 
will then give very clearly the sound of t. The children are 
called upon individually (not in concert) to imitate the sound. 
The teacher will then tell the children that she is making the 
letter on the board that stands for t (sound). The children 
give the sound of t as the teacher points to the letter t. 

The sounds and representations of the following should be 
taught before there is any attempt to blend sounds into words : 
m, n, f, v, t, d, p, b, 1, r, k, h. 

When the children can reproduce the above by letter on the 
board as the teacher gives the sound, or can give the sound for 
which the letters stand as the teacher writes the letters on the 
board, they are ready for the next step, viz : to learn the com- 
mon phonograms occurring in their reading lessons. 

Oy may be taught in the same way as t. The teacher will 
then write t before the oy and join the t to the oy and have 
the child give the blending or uniting of the sounds. 2 

Teach the child to think the sounds and pronounce the 
word as a whole. 

The reading material in use is the source from which to 
obtain the phonograms to be taught. The teacher should go 
through the first reading material and make an alphabetical 
list of the phonograms that offer opportunity for grouping 
words, as ould, would, should, could ; oy, boy, toy ; en, men, 
pen, ten, when. 

The teacher should give attention to the discovery of new 
words. After a phonogram has been taught, children should 
search through their reading lessons for words containing this 
phonogram. The following exercise illustrates what may be 
done in a ten-minute phonic lesson. 

i The teacher gives the consonant sounds and the chil- 
dren individually reproduce these sounds orally. Sounds 
which are difficult for the children to give well should receive 
attention. 

2 The teacher gives with animation and good inflection 
several sentences. The children repeat the same. The sen- 
tence should be given but once. Train children to listen and 
reproduce with accuracy. These sentences offer an excellent 
opportunity for the teacher to give correct language forms for 
those incorrect forms in use by children. 

2 Do not permit pauses after individual sounds or groups. Do not 
sound for the child unless he is helpless. 



20 

3 The teacher will write from twenty to forty (review) 
phonograms upon the blackboard. The children quickly rise 
and pronounce. 

4 The teacher will give to each child of a group sent to 
the board a phonogram for a heading, as ean (name the let- 
ters), ear. The children are then told to write the words they 
have learned which contain that phonogram. No guessing is 
allowed. The words formed from the phonogram are the 
words that have been taught. The result will be 

ean ear 

b ean h ear 

1 ean h ear s 

1 ean s y ear 

rri ean ing d ear 

5 The new phonogram is sounded by the teacher and re- 
produced orally by the children. The representation of the 
new phonogram is then written on the board. The children 
pronounce. 

The teacher writes the same phonogram with the letters 
necessary to form the new word occurring in the reading 
lesson. It is pronounced by the children after thinking the 
sounds. If the word is not gained from the silent sounding 
then the work of blending is performed orally. 1 

The results to be gained from a course in phonics are : 

a Clear, correct enunciation of consonant and vowel 
sounds. 

b Correction of bad habits of speech, such as the nasal 
tones, drawling, dropping final sounds, mumbling, talking with 
neither lip nor jaw movement, etc. 

c Power upon the part of pupils to gain printed words 
for themselves. 

ii 

READING IN THE GRAMMAR GRADES 

By the time pupils have reached the fifth year in school 
they should have acquired the power to read ordinary matter 
suited to their experience with a fair degree of intelligence and 



1 Do not call on children to give words containing the same sounds 
as the new phonogram. This will lead to poor spelling. They may 
profitably take their books and make a list of all the words in which the 
given phonogram occurs. 



21 



with considerable fluency. Assuming that the art of reading 
has been fairly acquired, the chief concern of the teacher should 
now center upon what to give them to read. The teacher is 
now to engage in the work of literary training and its main 
purpose is to arouse in the pupils a genuine love for good liter- 
ature, good in the sense that it awakens in pupils an emotional 
response and quickens their ideals. The grammar school 
years mark the period for opening wide many gateways for 
inspiration. Ideals, it is true, change fast, but the whole future 
life will in all probability never pass beyond the influence of 
these youthful ideals. 

WHAT SHALL THE PUPILS OF GRAMMAR GRADES READ 

The grammar grades present the greatest diversity in the 
interests of their pupils. In choosing reading matter, the 
nature and development of the pupil should be kept in mind. 
In what is the average pupil interested? How long is this 
interest maintained? What healthfully stimulates the imag- 
ination? In what kind of reading does the pupil find a sym- 
pathetic response? What are the ideals? Who are the heroes 
in this "age of loyalty"? The answers to these questions, 
combined with a somewhat extensive knowledge of the world's 
best literature in the form of adventure, heroism, exploration, 
humor, and romance, will give to the teacher or parent the clue 
as to what kind of literature to select. That course in litera- 
ture which presents through literary masterpieces ideal types 
of heroic men and women cannot fail of its purpose. ' The 
literature of action, of character manifested through action, of 
virtue attested through deed, is what we want." — Chubb. 

THE USE OF LITERARY WHOLES IN GRAMMAR GRADES 

The value of carefully reading a few literary wholes cannot 
be overestimated in the effect upon the pupil's literary training. 
Generally considered, more power is required to construct 
mentally the scenes and characters and to follow in an orderly 
way the sequence and relationship of characters and events 
of a " one story " book than of a short selection. To construct 
mentally the scenes and characters and to hold the sequence of 
events in their right order and relationship means mental 
grasp, and one cannot truly read until he has this power. 

Again, the author of a book of merit has some particular 
message or thought to convey through that book, and as a rule 



22 

a chapter or fragment of a chapter, dissociated from other 
parts which may be vitally related to it, cannot give that thought 
in its beauty and entirety. 

Pupils in the grammar grades should study with some care 
several standard works of worth. Before a great deal of ex- 
tensive reading is done, the pupils should be taught how to 
interpret their daily reading. This reading under wise direc- 
tion is very important. The teacher by well-directed questions 
and suggestions should help the pupil to interpret and associate 
the plot. 

Reading a large number of books for the sake of passing 
over a great deal of material to gain fluency fosters superfi- 
ciality and cannot produce real mental culture. Time is 
needed for healthy growth. 

THE PLACE OF GRADED SERIES OF READERS 

The graded reader has a place in our schools and is valuable 
for the kind of work that it makes possible through the silent 
or oral reading of the short selection. The short selection 
gives opportunity for rapid sight reading and interpretation — 
to seize the thought quickly. The mechanics of oral reading 
can be more profitably and suitably taught through the variety 
of short selections offered in the graded reader than through 
the " one story book." 

INFORMATION READERS 

The information reader has a worthy position and is neces- 
sary in our schools, but it has no place in a course in reading 
or literature. It is to be used as supplementary to the subjects 
taught, to enlarge and enrich specific topics, to apply the power 
to read to a well-defined end in the acquisition of information. 
It furnishes reading with a direct motive and close association 
with the subject it supplements. 

KINDS OF READING EXERCISES 

In a well-ordered course in reading, opportunity is offered 
for extensive and intensive reading, for oral and silent read- 
ing. Each kind of reading should receive attention. 

In the higher grammar grades the oral expression in read- 
ing is usually very poor — the readers fail to make their voices 
convey either thought or sentiment. The cause for the de- 
fective and monotonous oral expression may be attributed in 



23 

part to the custom of setting aside the reading in favor of the 
information studies which become more and more assertive as 
the pupils advance in the grades. Another cause for the 
poor oral reading may be found in the absence of a motive 
for oral reading. Reading silently and reading aloud are 
entirely different acts. The motive is different. Silent reading 
is individual. Oral reading is social. To read aloud is to read 
and at the same time give voice to the message received from 
the printed page for the sake of sharing something with others. 
Oral reading demands a listener. 

In order that pupils may be able to read orally, time must 
be given in the daily program for a daily exercise in oral ex- 
pression accompanied by a motive for the expression. At 
least thirty minutes each day should be given to oral reading 
by the pupils. 

THE AMOUNT OF READING TO BE DONE 

The pupils should be encouraged to read books in addition 
to those studied in class. The time offered in school for read- 
ing is too limited for the amount of reading that ought to be 
accomplished by the pupils. Indeed the design of the directed 
reading is to give pupils a desire to read good literature from 
choice. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR TREATING DIRECTED READING LESSONS '■ — ASSIGNMENT OF 
WORK 

The assignment of a lesson requires preparation upon the 
part of the teacher. The work should be assigned in such a 
way as to make clear what is to be accomplished by the pupils : 
(i) words to be defined; (2) allusions, historical, mythical, or 
otherwise, to be explained; (3) questions to be answered con- 
cerning thought or purpose; (4) suggestion of what pleasure 
awaits them. 

A WORD STUDY IN DETAIL 

The word study is not a part of the reading lesson, but a 
preparation for it. This work does not in any way discourage 
the excellent plan of having pupils find the meaning of a word 
or phrase by reading and rereading the sentence or paragraph 
in order to find the meaning of the word in its relation to the 
context. 



2 4 

In the preparation of a word study the pupil's work is first 
to read the lesson with care, then give his attention to the 
words which have been selected by the teacher and written on 
the board. 

i Each word is to be defined, the pupil choosing the syn- 
onym best expressing, according to his understanding, the 
meaning of the author. 

2 The pupil's definition is substituted in the author's sen- 
tence. 

3 An original sentence is given by the pupil using the 
word defined. 

The following word studies were selected from papers pre- 
pared by pupils of Grades V and VI and indicate the manner 
in which the unknown words in the reading lessons are pre- 
pared : 

Book — Mopsa the Fairy — Jean Ingelow. Grade V. 

Lesson, p. 133-141. Age 11. 

odious 
Definition — hateful 

Author's use and substitution — " Odious ! " exclaimed 

(hateful) 
Jack, sneezing. " What terrible creatures these are ! " 

Original sentence — It was odious of Alexander to butcher 
the Tyrians so. 

enormous 
Definition — huge 

Author's use and substitution — " like one ring or coil of 
an enormous serpent." 
(huge) 
Original sentence — Xerxes had an enormous army when 
he conquered Greece or tried to. 
lithe 
Definition — limber 

Author's use and substitution — " and the first thing the 
Craken did was to stoop its lithe neck." 

(limber) 
Original sentence — A snake is the most lithe creature in 
the jungle. 

formidable 
Definition — tremendous 

Author's use and substitution — " Jack knew it was of no 
use saying anything to this formidable creature." 

(tremendous) 



25 

Original sentence — Theseus did riot think Procrustes a 
formidable giant. 

Book — The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood — Pyle. 

Grade VI. 
Lesson, p. 121-127. Age 10. 

mollified 
Definition — pacified, appeased, calmed, quieted 
Author's use and substitution — " ' Truly, friend,' quoth 
the other, mollified by Robin's peaceful words." 
(pacified) 
Original sentence — June was somewhat mollified by 
Dick's excuse and told him that Chester Arlington was in 
Fardale. 

aught 
Definition — anything 

Author's use and substitution — "I would not burden thee 
with aught of mine." 
(anything) 

Original sentence — Butterworth took aught that was of 
any value, from strangers who were lost in the forest, 
reverent 
Definition — humble, respectful 

Author's use and substitution — " thou are most reverent 

(humble) 
to the cloth." 

Original sentence — The Athenians were very reverent in 
the presence of King Minos, because they realized that he could 
make them do as he pleased. 

SPEECHES — PLAN OF TREATMENT 

In the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, a considerable 
amount of dignified matter of high literary merit in the form 
of the world's great speeches may be used as supplementary to 
the history work. It is suggested that the speeches studied 
may be given with the appropriate setting of chairman, speaker, 
audience, etc. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR SECURING INTELLIGENT AND INTELLIGIBLE ORAL READING 

Be sure that the thought of what is presented for reading 
is clear. 

Take pains to have the vocabulary known so that pupils 
can pronounce the words correctly. 



26 

Arrange the program so as to have oral reading in some 
form daily throughout the grammar grades. 

Give some practice in dramatic expression. 

Have some part of an appropriate selection read, memo- 
rized, and rendered orally as a quotation. 

Train the pupils to read to an audience (the school and 
teacher) instead of into a book. 

The teacher should follow the reader with the ear instead 
of following the text with the eye. 

The teacher must be able to read well orally if she would 
teach pupils to express well. 

Read and reread until the meaning is clearly interpreted. 

The. right atmosphere must be created. 

Have exercises in reading for thought interpretation, the 
same selection to be read by different pupils, each rendering it 
according to his interpretation of the thought. 

in 

LISTS OF BOOKS FOR SCHOOL READING BY GRADES 

Three lists of books are presented. The first list comprises 
selections to be memorized by the children. 

In the second list are included books, poems, and selections 
to be recited or read to the children by the teacher. 

Reading for the first two or three years is necessarily at- 
tended with many mechanical difficulties. The child is acquir- 
ing the art of reading, but while acquiring the art he should be 
emotionally stimulated by good literature — literature good 
from the child's standpoint, in that it finds within him an emo- 
tional response. 

The story, poem, or prose selection should be told, recited, 
or read to the children by the teacher. 

" As for the manner in which all this is to be done, there 
should be no discounting by husky, rasping voice. The teacher 
ought to know how to beautify the spoken word by clear, rich 
intonation; by delicate variations of expression; by faultless 
pronunciation and clear cut enunciation." — Chubb. 

To this may be added the almost universal fault of the 
monotone. 

Readings by a teacher with a cultivated voice and an appre- 
ciation of good literature are invaluable in awakening and 
cultivatinsf in the children a taste for s^ood reading. With the 



27 

primary teacher rests to a considerable degree the success of 
oral expression. 

The third list includes books and selections to be read by 
the children in the reading hour. In this third list, " Books 
to be read by the children," no attempt has been made to rec- 
ommend reading text-books for the grades. There are many 
first readers in the market with little but illustration and adver- 
tisement to commend their use in the schoolroom. The 
grading is uneven and the selections are often weak in content. 1 

An appreciation of the beauty of literature is the first essen- 
tial of a truly successful teacher of reading. One writer has 
asserted that " thousands of children would be better readers, 
even with .the present methods, if their teachers had a higher 
interest in the best literature." It certainly will be of little 
avail to put good literature into the schools, if its truth and 
beauty do not appeal strongly to the teacher. 



To be memorized 

Psalm XXIII 
Rossetti C Who has seen the wind 

Watts How doth the little busy bee Coates 

Children's book of poetry- 
Sleep, sleep, sleep — From Ger- 
man 
Tennyson What does little birdie say Houghton 

Taylor Twinkle, twinkle, little star 

To be read or told to the children 
POEMS 

Tennyson The owl Houghton 

Moore A visit from St. Nicholas — 

Williams' choice lit — int I 
Ingelow Seven times one Coates 

Children's book of poetry 
Coleridge Answer to a child's question Coates 

Children's book of poetry- 
Child L M Thanksgiving day 
Bunner H C One, two, three 

Longfellow Birds of Killingworth Houghton 

Luther Martin Christmas hymn to children 

Cary Legend of St. Peter 

Stevenson The sun's travels Scribner 



1 See suggestions concerning the selection of good reading matter 
for beginners, p. 16. 



28 



Browning 


The pied piper 
Children's book of poetry 


Coates 


Longfellow 


Selections from Hiawatha 


Houghton 


Kingsley 


The lost doll 

Children's book of poetry 


Coates 


Van Dyke 


The song sparrow 


Scribner 


Allingham 


Wishing 
Children's book of poetry 


Coates 


Krout 


Little brown hands 




Burroughs 


Songs from nature 

STORIES 


McClure 


Stockton 


Old Pipes and the Dryad 
Fanciful tales 


Scribner 


Bulfmch 


Philemon and Baucis 




Kipling 


Rikki-tikki-tavi 
Jungle book 

Story of Joseph 


Century 


Andersen 


The pea blossom 


Ginn 


Mulock 


Cinderella 


Harper 


Andersen 


The snow queen 

To be read by the children 


Houghton 


Longman 


Fairy tale of a fox, etc 




Norton 


Heart of oak books — I 


Heath 


Scudder 


Verse and prose for beginners 


Houghton 


Mother Goose Once I saw a little bird 


Houghton 



Stevenson 
Stevenson 
Stevenson 



Girls and boys come out to 

play 
Goosey, goosey, gander 
Old Mother Hubbard 
Little Boy Blue 
Little Bo-peep 
Jack Sprat 
Jack and Jill 
Dance, Thumbkin, dance 
Baa, baa, black sheep 
Old King Cole 
Little Robin Redbreast sat 

upon a tree 
Little Robin Redbreast sat 

upon a rail 
I had a little pony 
Rain, rain, go away 
Simple Simon met a pieman 
One, two, buckle my shoe 
This pig went to market 
What are little boys made of 
My shadow Scribner 

The wind Scribner 

My bed is a boat Scribner 



29 



Stevenson 

Stevenson 

Stevenson 

Lear 

Lear 

Riley 

Smith 



The swing 
Foreign children 
The cow 
Alphabet rhymes 
The owl and the pussy cat 
Sea-song from the shore 
Poems at home 

"Arabella and Araminta 
First readers 



Scribner 

Scribner 

Scribner 

Little 

Little 

Century 

Copeland & Day 



GRADE II 
To be memorized 
Psalm XXIV 
Coleridge Answer to a child's question Coates 

Children's book of poetry 

Kingsley Chas A farewell Coates 

Children's book of poetry 
Ingelow Seven times one Coates 

Children's book of poetry 
Emerson The mountain and the squirrel 

Rossetti C The rainbow 

To be read to the children 
POEMS 

Stevenson The little land of story-books 

Child's garden of verses 

Birds of Killingworth (selec- 
tions) 
Road song of the bandar log 
Block City 
Child's garden of verses 

The lamplighter 

Child's garden of verses 

Beads for a name 
Robert of Lincoln 
Children's book of poetry 
Song sparrow 



Longfellow 

Kipling- 
Stevenson 

Stevenson 

Sangster 
Bryant 

Van Dyke 



Scribner 



Houghton 
Macmillan 
Scribner 

Scribner 



Coates 
Scribner 



Kipling 
Luther Martin 
Bulfinch 
Andersen 



STORIES 

Her majesty's servants 

Letter to his little son 

Arachne 

The last dream of the old oak 



Fairy tales 



Andersen 
Andersen 
Andersen 
Gatty Mrs 



Fairy tales 



Buckwheat 
s 
The flax 



Fairy tales 



Fairy tales 



The ugly duckling 
s 

The general thaw 
Story of Moses 
Little black Sambo 



Ginn 
Ginn 
Ginn 
Ginn 



3o 



Keble 


All things beautiful 


Coates 


Children' 


s book of poetry 

To be read by the children 




Craik 


Bow-wow and mew-mew 




Stickney 


JEsop's fables 




Long 
Welch 


Cinderella and other stories 
Nursery rhymes 




Smythe 


Old time stories 




Wiltse 


Grimm's fairy tales — I 


Ginn 


Heller 


Jack and the beanstalk 

POEMS 


Longmans 


Field Eugene 


Eugene Field book 


Scribner 



The rock-a-by lady 

Japanese lullaby 

Child and mother 

Norse lullaby 
Field Dutch lullaby Scribner 

Howitt The spider and the fly Coates 

Children's book of poetry 
Wadsworth Over in the meadow Coates 

Children's book of poetry 

Cary They didn't think Houghton 

Larcom Sir Robin 

Sangster A drummer 

Lear Calico pie Little 

Lear Mr and Mrs Spikky Sparrow Little 

Ingelow Seven times one Coates 

' Children's book of poetry 

Kingsley The lost doll Coates 

Children's book of poetry 
Cary Three bugs Houghton 

Cary P Suppose Houghton 

The children in the wood — 
Williams Old Eng ballad Choice lit 

Int I 
Mother Goose Sing a song of sixpence Houghton 

If all the seas were one sea 

This is the house that Jack 
built 

Who killed Cock Robin 

I had four brothers over sea 

I saw a ship a-sailing 

Where are you going 

Second readers 
Lear The Jumblico 



Scott 



GRADE III 
To be memorized 
Psalm CXXI 
Lullaby of an infant chief 



31 



Tennyson 
Rand W B 
Moultrie John 
Jackson H H 
Hogg 



The oak 

The child's world 

Violets 

September 

A boy's song 



Children's book of poetry 

To be read to the children 
POEMS 

Longfellow The emperor's bird's nest 

Larcom The merry brown thrush 

Payne Home, sweet home 

Longfellow The bell of Atri 

Larcom A surprise 

Wordsworth Lucy Gray 

Children's book of poetry 

Thaxter The sandpiper 

Aldrich The bluebird 

Wordsworth We are seven 

Children's book of poetry 

Mather W E Coasting 



Houghton 
Coates 

Houghton 

Houghton 
Coates 
Houghton 
Coates 



Hawthorne 

Harper 

Harris 

Hawthorne 
Thaxter 



Norton 

Andersen 

Scudder 

Wiltse 

Stevenson 

Shute 

Carroll 

Baldwin 

Carroll 



Wordsworth 

Cary 

Henians 

Stedman 
Aldrich 
Wordsworth D 



STORIES 

The great stone face 
Adventures of a brownie 
Mr. Thimble Finger (selec- 
tions) 
The golden touch 
Peggy's garden 

Stories of Samuel and David 
told 

To be read by the children 
Heart of oak books 
Danish fairy tales 
Fables and folk stories 
Grimm's fairy tales, II 
Child's garden of verse 
Land of song, I 
Alice, in wonderland 
Fifty famous stories 
Through the looking glass 

POEMS 

March 

The leak in the dike 

Casabianca 

Children's book of poetry 

What the winds bring 
The Arab welcome 



Houghton 



Houghton 
Houghton 



Heath 

Maynard & Merrill 

Houghton 

Ginn 

Scribner 

Silver 

Rand, McN. 



Coates 



The cottager and her infant 



32 



Hood 

Shakespeare 

Shakespeare 

Jackson H H 

Jonson 

Hemans 



Thaxter 

Stevenson 

Tennvson 



GRADE IV 
To be memorized 
I remember, I remember 
Hark, hark the lark 
Winter 
October 

The noble nature 
Casabianca 
Children's book of poetry 

Psalm XXXVII 
The sandpiper 
The lamplighter 
The oak 



Coates 



Houghton 

Scribner 

Houghton 



Southey 

Southey Caroline 

Ewing 

Harris 

Kipling 

Stockton 

Swift 

Kipling 

Longfellow 

Thaxter 



To be read to the children 

Bishop Hatto 

To the ladybird 

Story of a short life Crowell 

Uncle Remus stories Houghton 

Selections from first Jungle 

book Century 

Fanciful tales Scribner 

Gulliver's travels Ed Pub co 

The just so stories Doubleday 

Hiawatha Houghton 

Piccola Houghton 
Story of Daniel told 

To be read by the children 
READERS 



Scudder 


Book of legends 
Arabian nights 


Houghton 


Williams 


Choice literature — Int I 


Sheldon & Co 


Pratt 


Legends of the red children 


Werner School Book 


Norton 


Heart of oak, III (selections) 


CO 

Heath 


Segur Madame de 


The donkey 


Heath 


Browne 


The wonderful chair 


Heath 


White 


When Molly was six 

POEMS 


Houghton 


Shute 


The land of song, II 

GRADE V 
To be memorized 


Silver 


Payne 


Home, sweet home 




Scott 


Christmas time — Marmion 




Aldrich 


Before the rain 


Houghton 


Aldrich 


After the rain 


Houghton 


Longfellow 


The village blacksmith 


Houghton 



33 



Tennyson 


The owl 


Houghton 


Thaxter 


The new year 


Houghton 


Wordsworth 


March 




Herrick Robert 


The succession of the four 
sweet months 




Longfellow 


The builders 


Houghton 


Longfellow 


Paul Revere's ride 


Houghton 


Doane 


The sculptor boy 
Psalm C 

To be read to the pupils 




Kipling 


Jungle books (selections) 


Century 


Harris J C 


Uncle Remus stories (selec- 






tions) 


Houghton 


Browning 


The boy and the angel 


Houghton 


Dodge 


Hans Brinker 


Scribner 


Brooks E S 


Life of Lincoln (selections) 
Story of Elijah told 


Lothrop 


Longfellow 


Hiawatha 


Houghton 


Bryant 


Ulysses among the Phaeacians 




Brooks P 


Letters of travel (selections) 


Dutton 


Carroll Lewis 


Letters of Lewis Carroll (se 






lections) 


Century 


Scott 


Christmas in olden time — Mar 
mion 




Lowell 


The Chippewa legend 


Houghton 




The Eugene Field book 


Scribner 




To be read by the pupils 


- 


Baldwin 


Old Greek stories 


Am Bk co 


Pyle 


Robin Hood (school ed) 


Scribner 


Norton 


Heart of oak, III (selections) 


Heath 


Shute 


Land of song, II 


Silver 


Montgomery 


Heroic ballads (selections) 


Ginn 


Stockton 


Fanciful tales 


Scribner 


Kipling 


Just so stories 


Doubleday 


Ruskin 


King of the Golden river 


Ginn 


Eliot 


'Arabian nights entertainments Houghton 


Ingelow 


Mopsa, the fairy 


Roberts Bros 


Mulock 


Adventures of a brownie 


Harper 


Baldwin 


Old stories of the East 


Am Bk co 


Baldwin 


Old Greek stories 


Am Bk co 


Hawthorne 


Grandfather's chair 


Houghton 



Whitman 
Browning 
Mackay 
3 



GRADE VI 
To be memorized 
Psalm XCI 

Oh, captain, my captain 
The boy and the angel 
Under the holly bough 



Small, Maynard 
Houghton 



34 



Wordsworth 


I wandered lonely as a cloud 


Crowell 


Field Eugene 


The duel — Eugene Field bk 
To be read to the pupils 


Scribner 


Ewing 


Jackanapes 


Little 


Diaz A M 


William Henry letters (selec- 






tions) 


Loth 1 op 


Carroll 


Letters of Lewis Carroll (se 






lections) 


Century 


Brooks 


Letters of travel 


Dutton 


Longfellow 


Legend beautiful 


Houghton 


Longfellow 


The bell of Atri 


Houghton 


Hunt Leigh & Keats 


. The grasshopper and the 
cricket 

To be read by the pupils 




Church 


Stories of the old world 


Ginn 


Classics i 


: or children 




Shute 


Land of song, III (selections) 


Silver 


Haaren 


Ballads and tales 


Univ Pub co 


Norton 


Heart of oak, III (selections) 


Heath 


Price 


Wandering heroes 


Silver 


Palgrave 


Children's treasury of English 




song 


Macmillan 


Scudder 


George Washington 


Houghton 


Hughes 


Tom Brown's school days 


Houghton 


Irving 


Sketch book 


Ginn 


Dodge 


Hans Brinker 


Scribner 


Longfellow 


Evangeline 


Houghton 


Spyri 


Heidi 


Ginn 


Hawthorne 


Little Daffydowndilly and bio 






graphical stories 


Houghton 


Longfellow 


Miles Standish 


Houghton 


Hawthorne 


The great stone face 
Robinson Crusoe 


Houghton 



Shakespeare 

Macaulay 

Tennyson 

Scott 

Smith 

Pierpont 

Holland 

Mackay 

Waterloo 



GRADE VII 
To be memorized 

Psalm CI 

Morning (Cymbeline) Harper 

Ivry Houghton 

Sir Galahad Macmillan 

The lady of the lake, canto I Ginn 

America 

Warren's ^address 

The way to Heaven 

Clear the way 

To be read to the pupils 
Story of Ab Doubleday 

Selections from Job 



Lanier 



35 

The boy's King Arthur 
The iron star 



Scribner 



Alexander Mrs 


Burial of Moses 




Lowell 


Columbus 


Houghton 


Longfellow 


Tales of a wayside inn 


Houghton 


Kipling 


The coastwise lights 




Van Dyke 


The first Christmas tree 
To be read by the pupils 


« 


Frost 


Court of King Arthur 


Scribner 


Dickens 


Old curiosity shop 




Norton 


Heart of oak, IV (selections) 


Heath 


Martineau 


Peasant and prince 


Ginn 


Church 


Odyssey 




Longfellow 


Miles Standish 


Houghton 


Lanier 


Boy's Froissart 


Scribner 


Pyle 


Men of iron 


Harper 


Baldwin 


The story of Roland 


Scribner 


Lanier 


Bob 


Scribner 


Hamerton 


Chapter on animals 


Heath 


Greene 


King Arthur and his court 


Ginn 


McMurry 


William Tell 

GRADE VIII 


Silver 



To be memorized 



Doyle 


The red thread of honor 
Psalm CIII 






Scott 


Breathes there the man 


with 




soul so dead — Lay of 


last 




minstrel 




Houghton 


Holmes 


Old Ironsides 




Houghton 


Lowell 


Aladdin 




Houghton 


Hunt Leigh 


Abou Ben Adhem 






Emerson 


Forbearance 

To be read to the pupils 




Houghton 


Tennyson 


Crossing the bar 




Macmillan 


Wordsworth 


Character of the happy 


war 


- 




rior 




Ginn 


Lowell 


Biglow papers (selections) 








Solomon's prayer for wisdom 




Gras 


The Reds of the Midi 




Appieton 


Burns 


Prayer for Scotland 






Whittier 


Abraham Davenport 




Houghton 


Brooks E S 


Life of Lincoln 




Lothrop 


Miller Joaquin 


Columbus 






Holmes 


Bill and Joe 




Houghton 


Clarke 


Story of Caesar 






Brown 


Rab and his friends 




Houghton 


Thoreau 


Succession of forest trees 




Houghton 



36 



To be read by the pupils 
GREAT SPEECHES 



Everett 


Character of Washington 




Everett 


Reception of the Sauks and 
Foxes 




Lincoln 


Gettysburg speech 




Phillips W • 


The murder of Lovejoy 




Prentiss S S 


New England " Forefathers' 
Day" 




Webster D 


Eloquence of John Adams 




Webster 


The Bunker Hill monument 




Curtis Geo Wm 


Centennial celebration of Con- 
cord fight 




Phillips W 


Daniel O'Connell 
Indian — Red Jacket 

Logan 

Tecumseh 

Old Tassel's plea foi 
home 




Montgomery 


Heroic ballads 


Ginn 


Warner 


Being a boy 


Houghton 


Whittier 


Snowbound 


Houghton 


Kipling 


Captains courageous 


Century 


Burroughs 


Birds and bees 


Houghton 


Shakespeare 


Julius Caesar 


Harper 


Warner 


A-hunting of the deer 


Houghton 


Shakespeare 


Merchant of Venice 


Harper 


Motley 


Peter the Great 




Lossing 


Two spies, Hale and Andre 




Washington Booker 


Up from slavery 





II 



ELEMENTARY COMPOSITION 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 

While it may be said in a general way that the aim of 
English composition in the elementary schools is to train the 
pupils to speak well and to write well, especial emphasis is laid 
in this paper on the intimate relation that exists between lan- 
guage and thought. It is hardly too much to say that it is 



37 

language which makes thinking possible. Most text-books on 
English in the primary and grammar schools, whatever their 
merits in other directions, tend to make the subject of language 
something apart from the other school work. This is a great 
defect. Language is the medium by which most school in- 
struction is given, and language is also the medium by which 
the pupil gives expression to his own ideas. His expression 
indicates, in a large measure, the clearness with which he 
understands and the intensity with which he feels the various 
ideas and emotions with which his mind is active. Every 
teacher, therefore, of no matter what subject, should feel the 
dependence of his work upon the language spoken and written 
by the pupil. The science, history, literature, geography, etc. 
which make up the main work of the school should furnish most 
of the material that is to be talked about and written about. It 
must be talked about and written about to be understood, and 
the clearness of the conceptions obtained depends upon the 
clearness and definiteness of the language with which the pupil's 
thoughts are finally clothed. 

The teacher must not forget that much of the talking and 
writing should be connected with the regular work of the 
school. From time to time, however, exercises in dictation, 
reproduction, and original composition may be profitably given. 
Short exercises in dictation, in addition to affording practice in 
spelling and punctuation, cannot fail, if properly selected, to aid 
in developing a sense of literary form and may well be con- 
tinued throughout the elementary school course. They can be 
easily overworked, however, and this- danger is still greater in 
the case of reproduction, one of the most lifeless forms of lan- 
guage exercise. 

More attention might well be paid to original composition. 
Not only might the child's own experiences be made use of in 
letter writing and other forms of original composition, but 
occasionally opportunity should be given for the play of inven- 
tion and fancy in story telling and even versification. 

We learn to speak through imitation, and habits are formed 
by repetition. It is desirable that all teachers, but especially 
the teacher of the very young, be able to speak correctly, with 
clear enunciation and pleasant tone. Much attention should be 
paid to formation of distinct utterance, pleasant tone, and appro- 
priate expression in the speech of little children, that they may 
early form good habits of speech and early be impressed by the 



38 

dignity of language. Most teachers have to deal to a greater 
or less degree, with bad habits of speech already acquired. 
These bad habits, whether in tone, enunciation, pronunciation, 
or grammar, indicate a nervous machinery trained to turn out 
just such products. This nervous machinery must be changed 
if other results are desired. New pathways of nervous dis- 
charge must be opened up and old ones closed, or, in other 
words, new reflexes must take the place of old. Incessant drill 
on right ways of expression is the only remedy. It is recom- 
mended that a list of correct expressions be made out as sub- 
stitutes of the incorrect expressions prevalent in the school and 
that a rehearsal of such a list of expressions be a part of each 
day's program until further drill is unnecessary. I did it is 
substituted for I done it; I sazv it for I seen it, etc. Lists of 
words might also be made, a drill on the pronunciation of 
which would give the proper value of vowels and consonants.* 

The growth of the mind is an evolution not only from the 
simple to the complex, but also from the vague and indefinite 
to the clear and well defined. To demand perfection from the 
start is therefore unnatural. Yet this is what most courses in 
English do. In the beginning the young pupil is put to writing 
simple statements for the purpose of practice in the use of 
capital letters, periods, etc. Step by step new rules are added 
and new exercises given, the pupil in each case thinking more 
of how he is going to say something than of what he is to say. 
The ideal seems to be that each exercise shall be correct in 
English and that the successive exercises shall gradually in- 
clude the various technical points in English composition until 
the pupil is a master of English form. 

But as the thoughts of children are more or less confused, 
unorganized, and detached, the natural expression of the 
thoughts whether oral or written will also be confused, un- 
organized, and detached. The more important part, there- 
fore, in every exercise in written English with young children 
should be the preparation for writing rather than the writing 
itself. The subject-matter should be made familiar and clear, 
and it should be organized in the mind of the child by wise 
questioning till relative parts hang together and a certain 
amount of order is brought out of confusion natural to young 
minds. When this preparation has been given, the pupil can 

* Suggestive lists will be given at the end of the paper. 



39 

express himself freely. He will not be hampered by a lack of 
thought, and the abundance of his material will drive him on, 
regardless of punctuation marks, spelling, and the various 
other conventionalities. 

These conventionalities, however, should not be ignored. 
They have their use, but they should not be allowed to fetter the 
flow of ideas. Correct form is not always a matter of rule or 
definition; it is sometimes a matter of feeling. Children are 
willing enough to begin sentences with capital letters and end 
them with periods, but the trouble is they don't know where 
the sentences begin and where they end. And they never will 
know from studying definitions, but as their thinking becomes 
clearer a feeling will be born that this is the end of one state- 
ment and this the beginning of another. The need for commas 
and the other marks of punctuation will arise in a similar way, 
though a few definite rules may be of some use. 

When it comes to the criticism and correction of the writing 
of young people, great care should be taken. Of course the 
natural expression of a child upon some subject which he is 
interested in and can talk about will be full of mistakes. What 
he writes should be criticised from the standpoint of what a 
child might be expected to do, and not from what might be 
expected of a Macaulay or James Russell Lowell. Succeed- 
ing tasks should aim to secure an ever-increasing definiteness 
of the thought and its expression, and the elimination of mis- 
takes in spelling, punctuation, and syntax. As a rule, criticise 
only so far as the pupil is able to profit by the criticisms. Let 
the pupils do their own criticising as far as possible. In the 
ardor of creation the critical faculty may not be very active. 
Wait a day or two and then hand back the uncorrected papers 
for revision. As has been said before, it is unwise to attempt 
to correct all the mistakes that a child may make, especially in 
the earlier years of the school course. What should be sought 
is freedom in expression, and this freedom is frequently the 
cause of errors in form. It might thus happen that the paper 
that ought to be most commended is the one most criticised. 
If the teacher always keeps clearly in mind that thought, in- 
vention, and originality are more to be desired than correct 
punctuation, correct spelling, and correct syntax, he can then 
give attention to the elimination of errors in form without de- 
stroying the interest of the pupil in composition. 



40 

It is needless to say that the influence of good literature in 
developing taste and in furnishing models of form cannot be 
overestimated. It is through literature more than anything 
else that we get our feeling for form, and a course in English 
composition would not amount to much if it could not make 
use of those best examples of composition which we call 
literature. 

DETAILED DIRECTIONS 

During the first year of school the work in English must 
be largely oral. This must be so in the first year; it should 
be so throughout the school course. The importance of ex- 
pressing oneself in oral language has, of late, been under- 
estimated. Little children should be encouraged to enter per- 
sonally and enthusiastically into the work of the school. The 
reading should be in clear, pleasant tones. The reading les- 
sons should be the subject of conversation between teacher and 
pupil, and the matter of the lessons should be connected with, 
and illustrated by, the child's own experiences. Stories apart 
from the reading lesson should be told and talked about, and 
when familiar to the children they may be retold by them. 
Lessons on the life of plants and animals and upon the char- 
acteristics of the changing seasons will be of great use in 
broadening the experiences and strengthening the understand- 
ing. Language, however, should not be the only form of ex- 
pression. Pupils should draw and paint, cut and measure, 
model and construct, for by all these means will their thinking 
become clearer and their talking and writing gain thereby. 

The first work in written English might well be taken in 
connection with penmanship, and should consist in copying 
simple sentences. A little later interrogative sentences may be 
used. As the pupil becomes a little older, and acquires a little 
more skill in spelling, very short dictation exercises may be 
given, and the pupil may also write whatever he has memorized. 

During the earlier years of the school course, exercises 
consisting of questions and answers based upon selections from 
the reading matter will be found of some value. The difficul- 
ties of the exercises should, of course, be graded to fit the 
attainments of the pupils. The following selection from 
Andersen's " The Ugly Duckling " will illustrate the method 
with a third grade class. " It was beautiful in the country. 
It was summer time. The corn was yellow, the oats were 

) 



41 ■ 

green. The hay in the green meadows had been piled up in 
stacks, and the stork walked about on his long red legs and 
chattered Egyptian, for this is the language he had learned 
from his mother. Round about the fields and meadows were 
great forests, and in the forests deep lakes." 
Questions 

What season was it in the country? 

What color were the corn and oats? 

What had been done to the hay? 

What did the stork do? 

How can he talk Egyptian? 

What was about the fields and meadows? 

What was in the forests? 

The books should be in the hands of the children and they 
should be encouraged to give complete and well-formed sen- 
tences, using the words of the book as far as possible. If a 
selection has been memorized or is very familiar, similar ques- 
tions may be asked and the pupil may answer them without 
reference to the book. It will, however, be necessary to preface 
this kind of written work with much oral work in order that 
the pupil may be taught to make, clear and definite oral sen- 
tences before he be required to write them. 

If the general suggestions of this paper are carried out, 
most of the subject-matter for composition, both oral and 
written, will be taken from the daily school work. The method 
of treatment and the demands made upon the pupils will of 
course depend upon the subject and upon the pupil's age and 
ability. As has been said before, the preparation for writing 
is all-important. That which is taught or learned should be 
thoroughly assimilated by the pupil before he is asked to write 
about it. Writing then becomes a natural means of self- 
expression. The ideas here expressed will be made clear by 
the following illustration : 

Let us suppose that the children of Grade III or IV have 
for a general topic of study the people of the earth. The spe- 
cial topic is the Esquimaux. Books are read, stories are told, 
pictures are shown, and the child in daily recitation talks about 
the many points of interest that are brought out. It should 
be the purpose of these recitations to make the pupils familiar 
with the Esquimaux and with life in the Arctic regions, famil- 
iar in the sense that the information from all the various 



42 

sources has run together, so to speak, and has been assimilated 
as a part of the child's own mental possessions. Let the 
teacher assist the pupil in arranging the material which he 
now has. It should he arranged under different heads, e. g., 
the dress of the Esquimaux, their huts, how they get their 
food, the games of the children, etc. The pupil will thus see 
the necessity of grouping related parts, and he will get an idea 
of the paragraph and will learn to feel its force. 

When such preparation has been given, the pupil can then 
be called upon to write and he will have something to say. He 
will usually have so much to say that as a rule he will have to 
be limited to some special topic. But there will be freedom and 
individuality, and the child will feel that he is doing something 
far more worth while than the ordinary exercises in reproduc- 
tion that are so greatly overworked in most schools. 

Pupils should be trained as they become older to select 
topics not previously treated in the class, to work them out in 
an honest and thorough-going way, and to read to the class or 
the school the papers that they write. The great danger here, 
as all teachers know, is the tendency of young people to make 
a patchwork of quotations and fail to assimilate properly the 
material about which they write. 

TOPICS FOR SPECIAL TREATMENT 

1 Capitalization and punctuation 

2 Letter forms 

3 Drill in the correct use of certain troublesome words 

lie set raise can. shall 

lay sit rise may will 

4 Abbreviations 

5 Drill in use of dictionary 

6 Choice of words* 

slang 

colloquialisms 

I'm I've it's isn't can't 

doesn't don't won't shan't 

7 Proper use of words* 
Do not use 

any for at all 
among for betzveen 
learn for teach 
like for as 
either for both, etc. 



43 



Drill in correct syntax* 

I did it for I done it 

I saw it for I seen it . 

I ought for I had ought 

It is / for it is me 

It is they for it is them, etc. 
Quotation marks 

As a rule too much time is wasted in schools upon quo- 
tation marks 



10 Lists c 


)f words for 


practice in 


pronunciation* 


(a-ah) 


(au-ah) 


(ar — sour; 


d the : 


'0 (oa) 


calf 


aunt 


are 




boat 


half 


taunt 


arm 




coat 


laugh 


haunt 


art 






calm 


launch 


bard 






palm 


staunch 


car 






psalm 


laundry 


card 






path 




far 






raft 










past 










staff 










(oo) 


(ow) 


(nd) 




(sk) (s) 


root 


borrow 


and 




ask (s) 


soon 


tomorrow 


band 




bask (s) 


roof 


window 


sand 




task (s) 




winnow 


grand 




mask (s) 




sorrow 








(sp) (s) 


(st) (s) 


(sped) 




(sked) 


clasp (s) 


cast (s) 


clasped 




' asked 


gasp (s) 


mast (s) 


grasped 




basked 


grasp (s) 


boast (s) 


rasped 




masked 


rasp (s) 


roast (s) 
ghost (s) 
post (s) 
past (s) 








(fth) (s) 










fifth (s) 










sixth (s) 










tenth (s) 










twelfth (s) 










can 


had 


catch every 


little 



* The foregoing lists of words and phrases are by no means complete, 
teacher can add to them as he sees fit. 



The 



44 



III 

SPELLING 

Correct spelling on the part of any writer usually implies 
the formation of four important habits : ( I ) the habit of criti- 
cally observing the spelling of new words as he comes upon 
them in his reading, (2) the allied habit of noticing where 
words differ slightly from his image or his expectation of them, 
(3) the habit of hesitating to write a word whenever the spell- 
ing of it may be in doubt, and (4) the habit of taking a final 
glance at the word just written to see that it conforms to the 
intention of the writer and seems correct. 

New geographical, botanical, or other common words which 
seem new, illustrate the need of establishing this first habit so 
that the child will stop long enough in his reading to make 
sure that he sees every letter in the new word and fixes it in his 
mind as a word he now knows and can spell. 

When, however, a person who has known only the word 
peddler runs across the word pedler, he has discovered no new 
word but only an old friend in a new guise ; but, if in this case 
and in other similar ones he does not recognize this new word 
as different from his image and the way he would naturally 
write the word, he has failed to form a habit invaluable in cor- 
recting wrong first impressions, or, as in the illustration, in 
adding a second way of spelling the word. 

If pupils get in the habit of making some kind of guess 
when they know they are not sure of a word and so act without 
stopping to look it up or consult any one, a carelessness 
most detrimental to good spelling is developed ; while if the 
final glance is not taken to make sure that the word represents 
that intended, it may easily be wrong in any part, the possibili- 
ties of slipping up after consent has been given the muscles to 
write the word being innumerable. 

While no theoretical attempt will be made here to apply the 
three important principles in the formation of habits, namely, 
getting a strong initiative, allowing no exceptions, and seeking 
occasion for acting in accordance with the habit, they have 
contributed much to the practical suggestions offered below. 
Aside from these general principles it must be borne in mind 
that nothing will help the spelling like emphasizing it and 



45 

insisting upon it. This emphasis must pervade all the work 
in all branches, if it is to create a habit. " Every word entering 
into the child's experience with books or written language 
should be noted and become a part of the child's written 
vocabulary, with the possible exception of the most uncommon 
words such as scientific, geographical, historical, etc. which 
may be copied from the blackboard, if needed in written exer- 
cises. A definite attempt should be made to appeal to the chil- 
dren's pride and shame, that they may the stronger desire the 
greatest accuracy, but in the way of quiet and not public appeal. 
The extension of time for spelling is no solution of the ques- 
tion of emphasis. On the contrary it leads to a reduction in 
the emphasis possible and defeats itself. Certain recent tests 
seem to indicate that schools spending an inordinate time on 
spelling fail to accomplish more than other schools spending 
much less, while the best results are secured where the spell- 
ing is emphasised in all the work. 

The distinct features of the spelling exercises (apart from 
the work of the first two years, which will be discussed later) 
should be the period when the children study with the teacher, 
the period when they study by themselves, the period when 
they are drilled, and the period when they are tested. These 
periods might well be combined in certain ways, but should 
represent four distinct kinds of work. Your committee rec- 
ommends that, above the third grade at least, there is a dis- 
tinct advantage in having the regular formal written test exer- 
cise held the day following that of the periods in which the 
words were studied both with and without the teacher's aid. 
This does not hinder the assignment and study of a new lesson 
from following directly the test of that assigned the day before. 
So that a twenty minute spelling period might be divided be- 
tween a five minute written test and a fifteen minute study and 
drill on the next day's lesson with the teacher's aid, while the 
children could study it themselves at any seat-work period 
desired. This is considered a very desirable arrangement. It 
discourages the cramming often done for a written test which 
is to follow in a few minutes, and keeps the words before the 
children for a much longer period. It also gives them a chance 
to find out which words tend to slip away from them, while 
they know they must work harder to keep a word over night. 
It also gives opportunity for additional tests in school and at 



46 

home, where some decided assistance may more easily be ren- 
dered than on any other subject. This plan is somewhat revo- 
lutionary but has been tried with good results. 

Throughout the grades about twenty minutes each day 
should be given to study under the teacher's guidance, to 
drill, and to test work. Conditions will vary so much that it 
may be unwise to recommend any specific amount of work, but 
as a general statement fifteen words per lesson is recommended" 
for third and fourth grades, twenty to twenty-five for fifth and 
sixth, and about twenty-five for seventh and eighth grades. 
Reviews and tests should be frequent. 

STUDY WITH TEACHERS AID 

The general nature of the period in which the teacher helps 
the children in their study of the words should be such that the 
study period which follows it when the teacher cannot aid may 
imitate it both in method and in spirit. 

The teacher should anticipate errors the child may make, 
calling attention to the peculiarity of the word and not to the 
possible error. For example, in teaching the word early the 
teacher should call attention not to the regular mode of spelling 
ur but to the e and the a, as though it were ear-\y. 

Silent letters should not be crossed out, — which causes 
them to be neglected, — but should be indicated prominently 
by colored crayon, by underlining, by arrows pointing to them, 
etc. They are the very ones needing every possible emphasis. 

The children should learn to expect of the teacher help and 
interesting turns of the thought in the study period. Connec- 
tions, associations, and applications they could never think of 
spontaneously should be put within their reach. The more 
useful associations the teacher can bring to bear on a word or 
get the child to bring to bear upon it, the more likely is it to 
become properly fixed. One of the most useful classes of these 
associations is that in which the new relates itself in whole 
or in part to words already known. The unfortunate child 
who starts out learning to spell penmanship as an entirely 
unknown word of ten letters will have trouble, while the child 
who sees in it three simple words will spell it any time after he 
has made the discovery. Similarly the word each is seldom 
incorrectly spelled ; but the word teacher often is, though 
almost as easy. 



47 

Sometimes an association with the sound we should expect 
of a given association of letters will help in spelling a word 
which otherwise is spelled very differently from what would 
be expected of its sound. The word Wednesday illustrates the 
kind of word referred to here. If its pronunciation were not 
known we should make it three syllables, Wed-nes-day. Any- 
body who had once pronounced it that way would be slow to 
spell it W-e-n-d-s-d-a-y, as he might otherwise quite forgivably. 
If he calls s-h-o-u-l-d what it spells, and s-o-m-e som, he will 
get an association that may be all that is necessary to fix the 
word. 

The most fundamental associations are those which relate 
to the eye, ear, and hand, all of which should be united closely 
in each letter and word, so that the sight of a letter or word 
alone tends to produce the sound image and the writing of the 
word, while still more important is it that the sound of a word 
or letter call up the image of it, with the tendency to write it. 

From this last it follows that each of these sounds should be 
enunciated clearly and fully, not in a tone heard only by a 
quarter of the room but distinctly all over the room. More- 
over the child should vocalize every word. This can be most 
readily done in concert, but if the enunciation becomes unnat- 
ural, sluggish, or ineffective at points, either the concert work 
should be given up or the individual children doing poorly 
drilled separately. The child should get a clear auditory or 
sound image and should gain the habit of expressing it clearly, 
both in writing and in speaking. 

Another mode of associating words so as to aid in their spell- 
ing may be illustrated in the teaching of homonyms. Your 
committee agrees that they should never be taught together 
below the seventh grade. One should be taught one week (or 
better month) and the other later. The word t-h-e-r-e, for 
example, should not be taught with t-h-e-i-r. It would only 
confuse young children and the}' would finally be driven to a 
guess, in which case half of them will get it right. The word' 
there should be associated with zuhere and here and the mean- 
ings of each, while t-h-e-i-r, at another time altogether, should 
be' brought into relations with her, your, and our, with their 
meanings. The words sight, site and cite should also be dis- 
tinguished and taught by their associations not with each other, 
but with other ideas. Sight may be connected with night and 
light, site with situation, cite with recite, etc. 



4 8 

Often two or more words may be brought together by their 
common use and fixed as a phrase. Examples of such are 
" there are," " he doesn't," " for conscience sake," " you were," 
" he would have done it," etc. Sentences may also be studied 
in the same way. 

Common suffixes and prefixes should be taught practically, 
and associations made much as in the cases where words are 
found within words. 

Syllabication is useful in aiding the child to see that he has 
spelled the whole word and not left out a syllable ; but in cor- 
recting words not too great accuracy should be insisted upon 
in this particular, provided the division of the word is not 
absurd. It should be borne in mind that there are very few 
occasions for syllabication where a prefix or suffix is not in- 
volved. The ability to syllabicate accurately in all cases is 
possessed by few and is a practically useless accomplishment. 
The child easily becomes discouraged by his inability to cope 
with the difficulty and may lose because of it what interest he 
may have had in spelling. 

Younger pupils and all poor spellers should be taught to 
look at any strange word, whether in spelling or in silent read- 
ing, until they can get a clear visual image of it with all its let- 
ters clearly marked. They should look at the word carefully 
until they can close their eyes and still seem to see it just as it 
looked on the blackboard or in the book. If they cannot seem 
to see the word, they should look sharply at it again. 

Words should as a rule be drawn from the vocabulary the 
child is anxious to use in his expression all through the earlier 
grades. This would not debar the use of a spelling book, if 
one could be found so attractive in its form that the children 
were anxious to avail themselves of the opportunities it might 
afford for study and expression. In the intermediate and upper 
grades words which are regular in form might be included 
whether belonging to the vocabulary or not, it being the hope 
in that case that the spelling may enlarge the vocabulary. The 
same might be said of common words even if the spelling did 
not correspond exactly with the sound. This distinction be- 
tween regular and irregular words is drawn more closely and 
illustrated under the section on drill. 

Common forms, such as prepositions, conjunctions, pro- 
nouns, the forms of the verbs be and have, and so forth, should 
early be disposed of, whether regular or irregular. 



49 

DRILL 

Practically all the suggestions made under the head of 
" study with the teacher's help " admit of application in drill 
exercises. But the chief feature of the drill exercise should 
he first of all in the primary grades to get the child in the habit 
of expecting words to conform in their spelling to the sound. 
Fortunately most of the short vowel sounds in combination 
with consonants admit of only one spelling and some of the 
long vowel sounds have a usual mode of representation. Con- 
sequently children can soon expect to know that the sound at 
is almost invariably expressed by a with t, and so with a hun- 
dred other common combinations. But, in order to get this 
expectation of regularity, children must be drilled on words 
and syllables admitting of only one possible regular spelling 
until they know how to spell any such words or syllables with- 
out studying them. This work should be begun as early as the 
second year and continued for some months, and in all the 
intermediate grades at the beginning of the year, stress should 
he laid on such work until children can spell such words readily 
and would expect the imaginary words, ret, feltot, dobnit, etc., 
to be spelled r-e-t, f-c-l-t-o-t, d-o-b-n-i-t respectively, whether 
they had ever seen or heard of them before or not. They 
should learn to separate these words as " easy " from those 
words that admit of a choice of letters for the sound or that 
seem to depart from the sound. These " queer " words are 
the ones needing study by visualizing them, seeking new asso- 
ciations, noticing peculiarities, etc. Children should point out 
the parts of the words that they are afraid they may get wrong. 
It may be desirable that they classify all the words on given 
pages of their spellers or readers according to a twofold classi- 
fication, consisting (i) of the easy or regular words and (2) 
of those which contain silent letters and otherwise depart from 
ordinary mode of representing the sound. Each teacher or 
even pupil can make his own classification according to his own 
point of view. Examples of regular words would be revel, 
■uufinish, uplift, skilful, threshing, credit, channel, etc. Irregu- 
lar or more difficult words include such as fiend, guy, feature, 
death, iron, knew, lettuce, etc. which would be spelled very 
differently if one judged from the sound alone; and a class illus- 
trated by such words as bozel which we might expect to be 
■spelled b-o-l-e, amuse where we might expect a z instead of the 
4 



So 

s, maiden where the i could be left out, hair, loiter, promise, 
recent, refusal, practice, swarm, steel, tassel, etc. 

In grades above the fifth the very limited number of rules 
having few exceptions should be taught inductively, the whole 
class helping, and considerable practice in applying them should 
be given. The exceptions should have been learned as other 
words and long before the rules are developed, that they may 
not become obstacles to the rule itself. 

Children should also be drilled in catching words and even 
short sentences only submitted to their glance for a moment 
and then erased. This is to get the habit of rapid analysis 
and of instant searching for the difficult or irregular point in 
the word. 

INDEPENDENT STUDY 

Although the child's study with the teacher may best be 
done from the blackboard there is no question that his study 
by himself may very much better be done from a speller or 
even a reader. If the child studies the words from the black- 
board his attention is distracted by every incident of the school- 
room, while no such distraction will be so insistent if he is 
intent on his book. If he copies the words from the black- 
board he is likely in man) 7 instances through poor copy, defect- 
ive eyesight, or carelessness to make errors and learn them 
instead of the correct form. Even when he copies them cor- 
rectly he often misreads his own writing. The argument that 
it involves the motor centers and so adds further associations 
does not amount to much because so often the child has no idea 
whatever of what he is writing, but copies mechanically the 
letters in their order. Perhaps once a week such an exercise 
carefully supervised might be beneficial ; but the words copied 
should be known, they should be compared every time with the 
copy, and failure to note discrepancies should be regarded very 
seriously. Children should have words they are to copy writ- 
ten, not printed for them, or at least should not be allowed to 
print them themselves, when at other times they are to be 
written, as the motor processes then become a hindrance rather 
than a help. 

The whole endeavor should be gradually to give the child 
the power to do by himself what he does when the teacher 
studies with him. The child should never consider his lesson 



5i 

learned until he has tested himself on all the words he can 
remember of the lesson, and has discover'ed whether he is abso- 
lutely certain or not of each. If not certain of some, those 
words should receive further attention. In a similar way chil- 
dren may test each other at the close of a study period and see 
if they can catch one another on any of the words of the day's 
lesson. 

The studying up of words previously found to give trouble 
and perhaps kept in notebooks, the making of dictionaries of all 
the words they know, cutting out of newspapers words that 
they can spell, the underlining hard points in words, the writ- 
ing of words they know, etc. are all examples of various forms 
of seat work advisable in lower grades. 

THE FIRST SCHOOL YEARS 

The work of the first two years should follow closely the 
reading and desire of the child to express himself. The 
phonics should deal with regular words and be accompanied 
with spelling. The child should learn to visualize words in 
connection with his reading. His powers of expression should 
be called into play early by giving him the aid of words written 
on the blackboard. Abundant use of pictures and objects 
should be made with words to be written or copied under them. 
' But all written work is to be spontaneous expression with the 
spelling of the words furnished as needed. Hence they will 
fall within the understanding of the child. Great care should 
be taken to keep before the child at first words and phonograms 
spelled regularly, though he may take or copy others if he needs 
them in his spontaneous expression. He should learn early 
as a matter of convenience the names of the letters. 

TESTING 

A separate period of about five minutes should be. devoted 
regularly to the written test, which should be given almost 
daily, with a review test each week. A word should be given 
with clear enunciation and often followed by a sentence show- 
ing its use. 

Before the lists have been handed in, or preferably just 
after a word has been written, each word should be glanced at 
to see, first, that no slip of the pen has occurred, and second, 
that the word represents its full number of syllables and 



52 

sounds. This implies, of course, a clear auditory image such 
as the study with the teacher should provide. It will remove 
a very large percentage of the errors if effectively done. Such 
spelling of superfluous, as supcrflus, suprcfalous, suiiJuous (all 
taken from test papers) would then be eliminated. 

Sentences should occasionally be dictated in the tests. At 
other times children should be asked to spell any words they 
can. 

In lower grades the lists of words written should seldom be 
corrected by the same pupils who wrote them or by other 
pupils, as they often make mistakes or fail to see errors, and 
again children who see words incorrectly spelled become more 
liable to error themselves. 

All of the numerous devices for emphasizing the importance 
of spelling words correctly should be made use of as they seem 
most effective. Writing the words in books which record the 
successes and failures, starring perfect papers, posting on the 
blackboard or elsewhere names of those having one or more 
perfect papers are all useful. However, those who cannot 
take as many words as the others should be provided some 
encouragement by a modification of this method and by a 
reduction in the number of words until some ability to cope 
with them successfully has been developed. 

An attempt should always be made to determine the cause 
of wretched spelling. It is as often due to poor eyesight and 
defective hearing as to bad habits of work. 

HOME WORK 

Spelling is one of the few subjects where the ordinary 
parent can render efficient aid to the pupil. The children who 
take home fifteen or twenty-five (or in case of reviews a hun- 
dred) words to spell can first be tested to see how many they 
know and are sure of, the others being noted for further study. 
After these have been thoroughly studied the test can be given 
again until all are recited correctly. 

Word-games, logomachy, anagrams, and spelling matches 
should be brought to the attention of pupils by having them 
tried in the schoolroom. Many children will secure the neces- 
sary material and play the games at home, while all poor 
spellers should be urged to do so. 



53 

IV 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

WHY SHOULD THE STUDY OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR BE PURSUED? 

I For the knowledge to be acquired. " English Gram- 
mar puts the pupil in possession of much interesting knowledge 
pertaining to the vernacular. That would be a mistaken 
education which, while furnishing the mind with a store of 
facts concerning material things, human life, history, and the 
like, should wholly neglect the vesture in which these facts are 
clothed. Grammatical facts are mental facts, and it is cer- 
tainly as well worth one's while to know that he expresses his 
thoughts in nouns, verbs, etc. as it is to know the names and 
properties of strange plants and animals." — Hinsdale. 

" In one who claims to be a scholar, ignorance of history 
and structure of his language is no more excusable than igno- 
rance in any other department of knowledge." — Metcalf. 

II For the preparation it gives for advanced work in 
English, and for the help it gives students intending to pursue 
the study of other languages, as Latin and Greek. 

III For its disciplinary value. " The study of Grammar 
involves a peculiar exercise of the powers of observation — 
the forms of words, idioms, sentences, and of the realities that 
are behind them, distinctions, meanings, and relations. These 
forms and relations develop a kind of sense or perception that 
external objects do not develop. The study involves also a 
vigorous exercise of the logical powers — analysis, abstraction, 
comparison, inference. Grammar is the application of logic to 
a large and important class of facts. The powers of thought 
are developed by studying the relations of objects, external 
and internal. The first rank far below the second in educa- 
tional value. It is only when we can employ thought upon 
general relations, which are always abstract, that we begin to 
unsense or dematerialize the mind, and so introduce it to the 
sphere of scientific thinking." — Hinsdale. 

' " Power of abstract thought is promoted directly and 
effectively by formal or abstract studies, such as arithmetic, 
mathematics, grammar, and logic; and this because the occu- 
pation of the mind with the abstract is the nearest approach to 



54 

the occupation of the mind with itself as an organism of think- 
ing." — Laurie. 

IV For its hearing on the art of expression. " No matter 
how good one's opportunities to acquire the vernacular in 
childhood days may be, he is almost certain to form some 
erroneous habits. These originate partly in imitations and 
partly in the nature of our language. In household and in 
primary schools such errors will disappear in great part under 
the discipline of correction, but not wholly so. Few persons 
can be found who do not need that discipline of self-criticism 
which accompanies the study of Grammar when properly 
taus:ht." — Hinsdale. 



HOW SHOULD THE STUDY OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR BE PRESENTED? 

The subject of English grammar should be presented in- 
ductively to the pupil by an analysis of the language itself and 
not by definitions committed to memory from books. The 
classifications made and the definitions taught should be con- 
structed by pupils upon facts which they themselves have ob- 
served. 

" English Grammar may be defined as a description of 
those usages of the English language which are now approved 
by the best writers and speakers." — Whitney. 

" To be of any utility, either as a discipline, or as a train- 
ing, or as a knowledge, grammar must be studied through ex- 
amples. It must be studied in and through sentences and 
must be extracted from sentences by the pupil." — Laurie. 

WHEN IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS SHOULD THE STUDY OF 
FORMAL GRAMMAR BE PURSUED? 

As far as the elementary schools are concerned, the study 
of formal grammar should not be pursued previous to the 
last two grammar grades. It is suggested that topics iv-and 
v in the outline below be taken in the last year of the ele- 
mentary school course, and that topics i, 11, and hi be taken 
in the year previous. 

" A successful study of the science of language requires a 
subtlety of the judgment, and a maturity of the reason pos- 
sessed by few pupils under fourteen years of age. Trench 
says that ' Grammar is the logic of speech as logic is the 



55 

Grammar of reason/ and both philosophy.and experience show 
that neither logic nor Grammar is a child's study. Technical 
Grammar clearly belongs to as high a period of mental train- 
ing as algebra. The most important reform in the study of 
language that has received attention within the past thirty 
years is the postponement of Grammar to a later period in the 
course ; and in most schools it is still undertaken full two years 
too early. The time thus well nigh wasted on the analytic 
study of language should be given to a more thorough and 
progressive training in the use of language." — White. 

'A COURSE IN GRAMMAR OUTLINED 

I The Sentence 

Kinds according to Use : Declarative, Interrogative, 

Imperative, Exclamatory. 
Parts: Subject, Predicate, Complements, Modifiers. 

II The Sentence 

Elements : Words, Phrases, Clauses. 

III The Sentence 

Kinds according to Structure : Simple, Complex, 
Compound. 

IV Parts of Speech and Grammatical Forms 

Nouns 

Classes : Common, Proper. 

Grammatical Forms: Number, Relation (Case). 1 
Pronouns 

Classes : Personal, Relative, Interrogative, Ad- 
jective. 
Grammatical Forms : Person, Number, Gender, 
Case. 
Adjectives 

Grammatical Forms: Comparison. 
Verbs 

Classes : Auxiliary, Copulative, Transitive and 

Intransitive, Regular and Irregular. 
Grammatical Forms 

Voice : Active, Passive. 

Mode : Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative. 



1 Call attention to the fact that only a very few grammatical forms 
exist for the gender of nouns, as nouns ending in or, ess, ix. 



56 

Tense : Present, Past, Future, Present Perfect, 

Past Perfect, Future Perfect. 
Number : Singular, Plural. 
Person : First, Second, Third. 
The Participle 

Tense. 
The Infinitive 1 

Tense. 
Principal Parts 

The conjugation of the auxiliary verbs, of one 
regular verb, and of one irregular verb should 
be learned thoroughly. Pupils should be able 
to give synopses in different persons and 
numbers. 
Adverbs 

Classes : Degree, Time, Place, Manner, Causal. 
Grammatical Forms : Comparison. 
Conjunctions 

Classes : Coordinate, Subordinate, Correlative. 
V Construction 2 

The work should be confined to teaching only the 
most important rules. The following rules should 
be taught inductively : 
i A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a verb 
is in the nominative case. 

2 The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case. 

3 The object of a verb is in the objective case. 

4 The object of a preposition is in the objective case. 

5 A predicate noun or pronoun (predicate nominative 

or predicate accusative) agrees in case with the 
subject whose meaning it describes or defines. 

6 A verb agrees with its subject in number and person. 

7 A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in number. 

8 A verb having two or more subjects, or a pronoun 

having two or more antecedents, connected by or 
or nor, agrees with the nearest. 



1 The infinitive in ing should not be confused with the participle in 
ing. 

2 Exercises in the correction of false syntax should be used sparingly 
and should be confined to the errors to which the child is addicted or 
exposed. 



57 



SUGGESTIONS 



i None of the time allotted to the study of technical gram- 
mar in the grammar grades should be used to present abstruse 
or really difficult points. 

2 Pupils should be required to construct many sentences 
to apply and test the grammatical knowledge which they have 
acquired. This work should be practical, and should endeavor 
to disclose to the pupil situations where he by actual necessity 
must fall back on his grammar to enable him to decide what 
usage demands. 

3 The following lesson plan, taken from MacCabe's 
" Language and Grammar Lessons," is suggestive : 

The topic of lesson 

The introduction 

The development 

The generalization 

The technical term 

The definition 

Practical exercises 
It is recommended that teachers consult MacCabe's " Lan- 
guage and Grammar Lessons " for a full discussion of the 
above lesson plan, and its application in teaching the different 
subjects in grammar. 

4 In teaching the kinds of sentences according to use, the 
parts of speech, etc. lead pupils to analyze the subject-matter 
by means of the question "How is it (i. <?., the sentence, the 
word, etc.) used?" The plan of attack suggested by this 
question will insure right thinking, encourage self-reliance, 
and decrease guessing. 

5 Give such exercises as will impress on pupils that the 
same word may be now one part of speech and now another, 
according to use. 

6. A careful study should be made of elliptical sentences. 
Pupils should be required to complete many sentences lacking 
grammatical completeness, and to construct elliptical sentences. 

7 Analysis should be confined at first to isolated and easy 
sentences. Later, pupils should be required to analyze such 
divisions of literature as the paragraph of prose and the stanza 
of verse. 

8 Pupils should be required at first to parse and analyze 
according to definite models. As soon as possible, however, 



53 

only the more essential points, as classification and relation, 
should be considered. 

9 In order that pupils may be impressed with the fact that 
their language has a history, and in order that they may see 
some reason and hence gain some incentive for the study of 
English grammar, a brief study of the history of our language, 
preliminary to the study of grammar, is desirable. For ex- 
ample, see Introduction to " A Modern English Grammar " 
bv Buehler. 



V 

THE STUDY OF LITERATURE IN THE HIGH 
SCHOOL 

Without attempting precise definition we may say that the 
purpose of all instruction in English, whether in the lower 
grades or in the high school, is to teach the pupil how and what 
to read, how to talk and write ; to cultivate in him a desire to 
read widely and wisely, a desire to talk and write effectively. 
In other words, English study has to do with getting and 
giving through the medium of oral and written expression. 
The supreme end of all study is, presumably, character devel- 
opment, but the study of literature, dealing as it does with 
truths artistically expressed rather than with facts plainly 
stated, and appealing constantly to the emotions, offers unusual 
opportunities for developing judgment and taste, and for 
quickening the moral nature. 

The committee believes that, to accomplish the desired re- 
sults as indicated above, all high school pupils should have at 
least three recitations a week in English throughout the four 
years, with the privilege of increasing the number of recita- 
tions a week to five, if they so desire, during the last two years. 
The following courses are therefore recommended : 

I A Regular Course calling for three recitations 
a week throughout the four years, the time being de- 
voted to oral and written composition, and to the read- 



59 

ing and study of masterpieces, these to include the col- 
lege requirements. 

2 An Elective Course calling for five recitations 
a week during the last two years, a wider field being 
covered here than in the Regular Course, and more 
attention paid to the history of language and literature. 

« It is hardly necessary to say that the works read should be 
clean in tone, within comprehension, of reasonable interest, 
and of real literary value ; that short selections should, usually, 
come before long ones, the near in time and interest before the 
remote and strange; that the program for each year should 
present a variety of literary forms, narration, however, receiv- 
ing prominence during the first part of the course, lyrical 
poetry and argumentative prose for the most part being re- 
served for the later years. Perhaps it is equally obvious that 
the few works studied in school should, so far as possible, be 
of a " gateway " character, leading naturally to further reading 
of a desirable kind. To this end there should be, parallel to 
the regular program of each year, a supplementary list of 
masterpieces, some to be read to the class by pupil or teacher, 
others to be recommended for voluntary reading outside of 
school hours and after school days are over. 

A simple text-book in composition providing a review of 
grammatical principles and abundant drill in sentence, para- 
graph, and short theme structure, is desirable for the first two 
years. For the last year of the Elective Course a simple text- 
book on the history of English literature and language is rec- 
ommended; elsewhere a history seems unnecessary. The 
biographical and historical matter furnished by the editors of 
the various classics, occasional talks by the teacher, and fre- 
quent reference to carefully constructed blackboard charts 
should be sufficient to show the relationship of one masterpiece 
to another, and fix in a general way the chronological sequence. 
No text-book in formal rhetoric seems necessary. The intelli- 
gent teacher will have a sufficient vocabulary of technical and 
semi-technical terms commonly employed in talking about 
literature. This vocabulary he will by degrees impart to his 
pupils as occasion demands, and they in turn will learn to use 
' terms correctly. That this vocabulary may be imparted some- 
what systematically, perhaps it is well to arrange to give prom- 
inence to certain terms each year. Great care should be taken 



Cu 

in selecting editions of the works to be read. The editorial 
matter — biographical sketch, notes, etc. — should be clear and 
simple, giving what the pupil needs and can comprehend. 

HOW TO STUDY LITERATURE 

The following suggestions are of a simple character, 
offered in the hope that teachers who have had little experience 
may find in them something of value. 

The teacher's preparation. A thorough appreciation of 
the classic in hand — the author's purpose in writing it, the 
class of readers for whom he wrote it, the thoughts and emo- 
tions it contains, the means employed to make the work effect- 
ive — is of course essential. It is equally essential that the 
teacher bear in mind that most masterpieces studied have been 
written for mature readers of other generations, and that con- 
sequently some things, to be seen and appreciated by young 
minds of this generation, must be pointed out and explained, 
while many other things, no matter how simple the classic, 
cannot be fully appreciated even when pointed out and ex- 
plained. He must therefore determine with considerable defi- 
niteness what he will attempt to make the masterpiece accom- 
plish, adapting the study to the capacity and needs of his pupils. 
The study of a classic need not be exhaustive. 

Ways of studying a classic. Not only must there be an 
intimate knowledge of the classic and a clear idea of what the 
study of it should accomplish, but a definite plan of action, 
some part of which should be apparent to the pupils that they 
may enter into the work intelligently. The following are 
obvious ways of studying: 

Reading aloud. The simplest way, most effective, 
yet requiring the highest degree of skill on the part of 
the instructor, is to have the masterpiece read aloud, 
the voice interpreting the author's thought and emotion. 
Some masterpieces are better adapted to this method 
than are others, and it must be recognized that some 
individuals are nervously or otherwise so constituted 
that they can never become good readers ; yet with these 
reasonable limitations reading as an art should receive 
constant attention throughout the course. The teacher 
should be able to read well, that he may set a good ex- 
ample. He should be shrewd in discovering and using 



6i 

the two or three good readers found in nearly every 
class. But there must be, certainly during the first two 
years, considerable drill, much of it mechanical, for the 
entire class. 

Memorising. This should not be done for the sole 
purpose of training the memory to be exact, though 
such a motive is worthy, but with a view to storing the 
mind with choice passages which may serve to extend 
the author's influence indefinitely. Possibly didactic or 
moral extracts are best for this purpose, yet passages 
that are particularly melodious, or dramatic in quality, 
exert unconsciously a refining influence. Lines which 
appeal but faintly to the pupil now may reveal their full 
beauty and force of meaning in coming years. 

Reproducing in one's own language. This may be 
oral or written, a simple retelling of what the author 
says. Exercises of this character are of value, since 
they train the mind to discover logical sequences, and 
to separate the vital from the less important. They also 
train the literary sense somewhat, no doubt, through 
imitation. A modified form of this kind of drill con- 
sists in condensing one or more paragraphs into smaller 
compass, or expanding a compact statement into a 
longer one easier to comprehend. 

Talking about the masterpiece. The simple question 
and answer method is as good as it is ancient, provided 
the questions are asked not for the purpose of exposing 
ignorance but to stimulate thought and to invite the 
pupils to exercise judgment and taste. Question and 
answer should gradually give place, as the course pro- 
gresses, to free, informal discussion, the teacher by de- 
grees retiring till, in the last year, he becomes little 
more than a listener, directing without seeming to do 
so,- the class assuming somewhat the nature of a club. 
The advantages of this " club " method are obvious. 
Sentimentality, the bane of English study, will not 
flourish under it. The pupils themselves determine 
what is within range. Through general cooperation, 
many minds focusing attention on the same point and 
giving free expression to ideas, more is brought to light 
than by a dialogue between teacher and pupil. Above 



62 

all, experience proves that through general discussion 
genuine interest is created. The interchange of views 
may have to do with the truths of the masterpiece, or 
with its art ; it may involve a comparison of two master- 
pieces. It may at times take the form of debate, or a 
report, oral or written, submitted by some member of 
the class., or a talk by the teacher. 

I mi fa ting. Seldom does a pupil gain a full apprecia- 
tion of poetry till he has tried to write verses expressing 
his own emotions. He cannot appreciate the story- 
teller's art till in some simple way he has attempted to 
write a brief narrative in which he puts himself in an- 
other's place, or imagines what he would do and how 
he would feel under given circumstances. He will not 
appreciate argument till he has tried to prove some 
simple proposition and enforce conviction through elo- 
quence. Such drill may easily be made unreasonable 
and therefore unprofitable ; carefully managed, it be- 
comes a great aid in arousing an appreciation of artful 
expression. 

It would be unwise to attempt to determine which one of 
the five methods mentioned should predominate at any given 
point in the course. All five are needed throughout the four 
years. 

Simplicity and definiteness. It is exceedingly important 
that the plan of work be simple and definite. Too often the 
study of literature becomes a burden to teacher and pupil be- 
cause the work attempted is too difficult for immature minds, 
or because the pupil fails to see what is expected of him. He 
does not know how to study. He really needs a teacher when 
preparing a lesson, some one to put him in the way of discover- 
ing things, quite as much as he needs a teacher to recite to. 
Perhaps a part of each period assigned for recitation should be 
used for study under direction, particularly during the first two 
years. Throughout the four years it is well to devote the last 
few minutes of each period to talking about the next day's 
work — pointing out hard places, indicating where time may 
with profit be spent. Unexpected questions soon dishearten 
and are apt to produce dumbness. Many teachers advocate 
placing in the hands of the pupils printed questions indicating 
in a general way what the preparation should be. After all 



63 

has been done that can be done to make the work simple and 
definite,, it must still be borne in mind that there are pupils who 
cannot read aloud intelligibly, others who cannot talk freely 
about what they read, still others who cannot express them- 
selves in writing, and not a few whose aesthetic natures are 
incapable of high development. Nothing is gained by tortur- 
ing such unfortunates. The teacher must have patience, be 
reasonable in requirements, and never forget that making 
pupils work is not the supreme end. 

Approaching and leaving a- classic. The effectiveness of 
literary study may be marred by approaching and leaving a 
masterpiece too abruptly, or by failing to place emphasis where 
it belongs. Sometimes a few introductory words are enough 
to give the play, the essay, or whatever the classic may be, its 
proper setting. Usually a brief account of the author and his 
times, a simple statement of what gives the selection value, 
etc. should precede the study proper. In leaving a classic, 
pains should be taken to return to these preliminary statements 
and to fix in the mind the vital points brought out in study. 
Since it is impracticable, as a rule, to use a text-book on the 
history of literature, care should be taken to relate the master- 
piece under consideration to others previously read. Equally 
important is it to suggest other works by the same author, or 
of a similar character, that will make pleasant and profitable 
reading. 

Works of reference. It is often possible to get the drift of 
a passage without knowing the meaning of every word or 
understanding every allusion. Important as it is that, the 
child's vocabulary should grow, and that he overcome shiftless 
reading habits, many things may well go unchallenged, par- 
ticularly in the earlier years, lest interest be deadened. A 
lazy teacher can' save himself labor by making the study of 
literature consist largely in looking up things; an enthusiastic 
teacher may so overestimate the value of class enthusiasm as 
to cultivate in his pupils the lazy habit of guessing at every- 
thing. There is a sensible mean. Such words as are vital to 
the understanding of a passage, and such allusions as are of 
real importance must be looked up, reference to dictionary and 
encyclopedia becoming more and more frequent during the 
later years. 

The moral Even though the author's purpose be simply 
to " hold the mirror up to nature," he cannot help imparting 



6 4 

his ideas of what in life is nobl< and what is mean. Every 
masterpiece is an appeal to our 1 tter nature. There is clanger, 
however, in calling attention too frequently to underlying truth, 
wresting the moral from its artistic setting and attempting to 
define it in hard and fast terms. Usually the teacher should 
be content if he can make the pupil feel intensely the master- 
piece as a whole. If the truth in its artistic form is not suffi- 
ciently impressive to exert an influence, it will succeed no better 
when reduced to abstract form. 

Voluntary reading. There are many ways of interesting 
pupils in voluntary reading. Lists of appropriate books may 
be posted in conspicuous places. Leaflets containing attractive 
lists, each title followed by a few words of description, may 
be distributed. Perhaps the best results are obtained when a 
" book talk " grows naturally out of the work in hand, the 
classic under consideration suggesting others that are allied 
in theme. Whatever the methods employed, the matter should 
receive careful attention. Few things in present-day life are 
more alarming than the growing practice of hurried, promis- 
cuous reading. A vigorous protest often repeated will accom- 
plish something ; yet one should show due respect to the tastes 
of young readers, leading them to better things not by sneering 
at their honest likes and dislikes, but by making the better 
things seem attractive. Perhaps the gradual influence coming 
from careful, attractive study in classroom is, after all, the 
most effectual force in breaking up bad reading habits. 

A PLAN FOR STUDYING SILAS MARKER 

Two months before the romance is to be taken up in class, 
assign it for home reading — to be read in a natural manner, 
for pleasure. This allows time for assimilation ; gives the 
author a fair chance to exert her influence upon the mind when 
it is in a normal, not too critical, state. 

Immediately prior to the more careful study, distribute 
leaflets containing a few — at most half a dozen — simple 
questions on each chapter, designed to uncover here and there 
things which might otherwise be overlooked : bits of beauty or 
strength, a simple problem in ethics or in the art of story-tell- 
ing, a parallel between Silas Marner and some other work pre- 
viously read. The questions should be prefaced with a few 
general suggestions concerning how the romance should be 



65 

studied. Urge the class to try to find in each chapter some- 
thing to admire, either in the author's views or in her art ; deter- 
mine what each chapter does toward making the story com- 
plete. 

Read at the rate of three chapters a day, letting the average 
recitation take the following form : To each of three members, 
selected by the class as leaders, assign a chapter for special 
study. Number one, being called upon, sketches the contents 
of his chapter and adds whatever he pleases concerning what 
he has observed during his study. He is guided in this some- 
what by the questions, but is at liberty to disregard them. Fol- 
lowing his recitation, which has taken perhaps five minutes, 
comes general discussion by the class, different members having 
noted things which have escaped their leader, or perhaps de- 
clining to accept statements he has made. The teacher re- 
mains in the background, occasionally checking unprofitable 
lines of discussion, drawing the inert into action by throwing 
out an opportune question, and seeing that chapters two and 
three receive their share of time. 

Here is what one class made out of chapter xvi, the first 
in Part Two : The chapter bridges a gap of sixteen years, 
gives Dolly Winthrop's final dictum in regard to why God per- 
mits the innocent to suffer, tells of a wonderful little garden at 
Marners cottage, and ends with Eppie's confession of love for 
Aaron. It begins with a church scene, the peaceful Sunday 
perhaps intended as a promise of a happy conclusion after the 
storm of Part One; possibly designed to show that Marner, 
through Eppie, has been brought back into fellowship with 
others. At any rate, it is a clever device for bringing all the 
characters together and making them pass in review before the 
reader, after a lapse of many years. For this reason -it was 
better to open Part Two at the church than at the tavern, or 
the Red House, or the Stone-pit. No decision reached as to 
whether Dolly's solution is correct ; probably it voices George 
Eliot's own views ; perhaps too clever for an ignorant woman. 
Author fond, perhaps inordinately, of weaving mighty truths 
into simple tales. Scene at Eppie's garden closely related to 
the churchyard scene ; supplements it. Action of the story not 
advanced by it, though coming happiness is perhaps suggested. 
It is another device for refreshing the reader's memory, since 
it symbolizes the entire story, showing how many influences 



66 

have been at work. The furze bush stands for Eppie's mother, 
lavender from the Red House suggests Eppie's proud father 
and Nancy. The other flowers, simple things, typify the 
wholesome influence of Dolly and Aaron, perhaps. The stone 
wall about it comes from the stone-pits, at the bottom of which 
is Maimer's lost wealth. The author's skill in handling con- 
versation is noted, particularly the talk of women ; also her 
custom of warning the reader of impending disaster, rousing- 
curiosity yet preventing too sudden surprises. 

The printed questions on this chapter were as follows : 
What advantage in opening Part Second with a church scene? 
Give Dolly's way of' justifying the outcome of the " trial by 
lot." Show that in Eppie's garden the entire story is sym- 
bolized. Find one or two good memory passages. 

The story gone through in this fashion, the program being 
varied occasionally by introducing written work and oral read- 
ing, take an hour or two for considering the romance as a 
whole, reviewing it under the general heads setting, characters, 
plot, underlying truths, etc. Associate the name George Eliot 
with the names Scott, Thackeray, and Dickens. Suggest lines 
of profitable reading. 

A PLAN FOR STUDYING THE DE COVERLEY PAPERS 

To understand and appreciate the De Coverley Papers, the 
pupil should have first of all a somewhat definite picture of 
England as it was in Addison's day — the social and political 
conditions, the state of literature, etc. Without this aid, which 
must come from editor and teacher, he will hardly be able to 
get away from the present and transform himself, for the time 
being, into a contemporary of Addison, a preliminary step quite 
necessary in order to enter fully into the spirit of the essays. 

This transformation accomplished, the papers should be 
read leisurely and talked about in class, much as we may fancy 
they were talked about when they first appeared, the theories 
advanced in them discussed, the character sketches enjoyed, 
the humor pointed out, the style admired, — never forgetting 
that the Spectator's purpose was to amuse, as well as to reform, 
his readers. 

After this first informal reading, certain lines of study of a 
more difficult character follow naturally. The pupil may try to 
supplement his scanty knowledge of Queen Anne days by hunt- 



6 7 

ing down all the information the essays contain that would aid 
a historian in an attempt to reconstruct ' the times, perhaps 
embodying the results of some part of his investigation in an 
oral or written report. He may try to find the two men Addi- 
son and Steele as revealed in their writings — their views, their 
personality, their character. He may with profit study Addi- 
son's art, discovering a few things about his vocabulary, his 
ways of putting words together, of building paragraphs, and 
of constructing essays; his method of transmitting ideas in a 
pleasing, effective way. It is a mistake, however, to insist that 
a topical analysis be made of many of the essays, unless it 
seems best to sacrifice the spirit in an attempt to impress the 
somewhat erroneous idea that every essay must have a rigid 
framework. If occasional attention be paid to structure, one 
or two of the more formal papers analyzed, that is enough. A 
better way to accomplish the same result is to ask the pupil to 
play the Spectator himself, selecting appropriate themes of 
to-day and imitating Addison in giving them attractive literary 
.form. Few masterpieces lend themselves so easily to drill in 
oral and written expression. 

Here, as in the study of prose fiction, question leaflets of a 
simple character are recommended. The following questions 
are from a leaflet used in one of Connecticut's schools : 

Paper No. 112. Could Steele have written this paper? 
What makes it one of the best in the series? Give substance 
and state purpose. Has the paper a clearly defined plan ? Re- 
ligion aside, what are the advantages of Sunday and church- 
going? 

Paper No. 113. Try to imagine — take ten minutes for 
it — how this paper was received by Spectator readers. Would 
such an article be appreciated by readers of the present day? 
Is the purpose of the paper to instruct, reform, or amuse? 
Give substance of the Knight's narrative. Why is the Widow's 
hand mentioned so often? Explain "assizes," "murrain," 
" confidante," " tansy." Show that the quotation from Mar- 
tial is apt. 

A few review questions to follow the study of the Spectator. 
Purpose of the Spectator? AVhat good did it do in Addison's 
day and what has been its influence since then? What value 
has it today? Relationship to the novel, and to the modern 
newspaper? Sum up Addison's character and art as revealed 



68 

in the Spectator. Pick out two or three of the hest papers and 
tell why you like them. Name ten reforms advocated in the 
Spectator. Mention ten important things you have learned 
concerning the times of Addison. What have you learned 
from Addison of the art of composition that will help you in 
your writing? 

A PLAN FOR STUDYING CONCILIATION SPEECH 

The study of this classic can be made interesting and ex- 
ceedingly profitable. To do this, however, the teacher should 
know the speech almost by heart, and be thoroughly acquainted 
with its historical setting. More than this, he must know, 
through much experimenting, how to present it to the class.. 

First, the pupils should be told; clearly, the political condi- 
tions of Burke's day — the national issues, the party issues. 
Little can be accomplished unless the teacher has the power to 
carry her pupils back to Colonial times and make them see the 
old House of Commons, see Edmund Burke and the men whom 
he addressed ; make them enter into the spirit of the times. 
The class should be told before reading the speech the motives 
which prompted it, the purpose which runs through it. Unless 
this preliminary work receives careful attention, failure to in- 
terest is pretty sure to follow. 

The next step, equally important, is to point out — here 
the blackboard is almost a necessity — the general plan of the 
speech, that, as each part is read and studied, its relationship to 
the whole may be apparent. High school seniors are too 
young to do without this aid. 

The lessons should be short, at first, gradually lengthening, 
however, as study progresses ; yet it should be remembered 
that some parts are far more difficult than others and that 
there can be no fixed scale. Rather than divide a unit it is 
sometimes better to assign ten pages for a lesson and then 
repeat than to assign five pages one day and five more the next. 
The first reading should be mainly for the purpose of master- 
ing the facts and discovering the structure. If while the pupil 
recites the teacher stands at the board recording in topical 
form the facts as given, the class cooperating in determining 
what is vital, what the relation of part to part, till a synopsis 
grows before them, a kind of drill in logic is given which is 
exceedingly valuable and not too difficult. If each pupil is 



6 9 

forced to make an analysis independently, the task becomes 
unreasonable. 

This study of the speech as an intricate mechanism, as a 
piece of logic, is most valuable. Moral as well as mental tissue 
is strengthened when the pupil is brought face to face with a 
' difficult piece of argumentative prose and is made to feel that 
he must master it. There are, however, at least two other lines 
of profitable study. First, it should be remembered that im- 
bedded in the speech are many moral and political maxims 
which should become the property of the pupil. Second, the 
speech is something more than cold logic ; it is literature, with 
emotional qualities. Unless the pupil can be made to feel 
Burke's fiery eloquence, the teacher has failed. It is impossible 
to prescribe any specific way of accomplishing this, but one 
thing is evident : an oration should be read aloud. Practically 
all of the speech should be " delivered " in class. 

A PLAN FOR STUDYING A PLAY 

Plays have been read in school for so many years that it 
seems hardly necessary to indicate how they should be studied. 
The following plan is by no means the only one that succeeds. 

First, read the play rapidly, assigning an act a day and 
discussing it informally in class. The story, the characters, 
the moral problems here and there, provide material for lively 
discussion. Encourage the pupils to look upon the play as a 
problem which the dramatist has worked out step by step, in- 
troducing each scene, each character, for a definite purpose. 
In other words, call their attention to the art of play-writing. 

Second, give the play a more careful reading, searching out 
the precise meaning of difficult passages, noting the metrical 
scheme, and considering more carefully the characters as they 
appear in the light of the entire play. Sensible questions are 
to be found in the Globe School Book Company's edition of 
Macbeth, edited by Wilbur L. Cross. Sensible ways of look- 
ing at a play are to be found in the editorial matter of Heath's 
Arden Edition of Merchant of Venice. 

Third, have parts of the play read in class, to bring out the 
force and beauty of passages through oral interpretation. 
Many teachers approve of having entire scenes memorized and 
given with definite attempt to act the parts. 



70 

Fourth, assign written work, the matter suggested by the 
play. The following subjects are doubtless commonly used: 
The character of Banquo, An apology for Lady Macbeth, A 
soliloquy by Lady Macbeth after the banquet, The story of the 
play, beginning with Once upon a time. 

The second, third, and fourth lines of work as indicated 
above may with profit be carried on together ; that is, reading 
and composition should be used to relieve the tedium of the 
careful study of difficult passages. 

A FEW SUGGESTIONS REGARDING THE STUDY OF POETRY 

i To fully appreciate poetry one must hear it read aloud ; 
and since few young people are able to enter fully into the 
emotion of strong poetry, few have an ear sensitive to melody, 
a voice that can interpret nicely, frequently this reading must 
be by the teacher. The melody and the emotional qualities 
must be brought out. 

2 The beauty and force of a poem often lie in its figur- 
ative expressions, the poet conveying his thought and emotion 
more perfectly by means of associated ideas. Rhetorical fig- 
ures should therefore be studied, yet to simply locate and name 
them is of little value. Their force and beauty must be felt. 

3 The simpler mechanics of versification present few diffi- 
culties. The names of metrical feet and lines, the terms ap- 
plied to rhyming schemes, etc. may well be taught during the 
first two years. No doubt increasing attention should be paid 
to such matters as the course progresses; yet here again the 
mere ability to name a metrical scheme is of secondary im- 
portance, and there is danger of deadening interest through 
putting too much stress upon such matters. 

4 Wherever possible, an entire poem should be considered 
in a single recitation. It is better to return many times, letting 
a week or even a month intervene between readings, than to 
give a single, intensive reading. This is especially true of 
lyrics, which, like songs set to music, grow in beauty through 
frequent repetition. 

5 The average youth does not know how to talk about 
poetry. Even though it appeal to him, he does not enjoy 
making known his emotions. To insist too severely upon the 
pupil's pointing out what in a poem he likes, what he dislikes, 



7i 

giving in each case a reason for his preference, is unwise. 
Silence is sometimes a good sign, volubility a bad sign. In- 
sincerity is easily encouraged. This is particularly true in 
large, mixed classes. 

6 Memorizing passages is one of the very best methods 
of getting poetry to sing its way into the reader's heart. It 
should usually follow a brief study of the poem, but it is by no 
means a foolish thing to occasionally let a poem take its chances 
without the teacher's intermeddling. Plant the seed and trust 
to nature to take care of it.* 



VI 

COMPOSITION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 



GENERAL STATEMENT 

Success in the teaching of composition depends chiefly upon 
the extent to which the teacher appreciates the twofold nature 
of the object of such training. This object may be stated as 
follows : 

I To increase and correct the mental and spiritual 
activities of the pupil. 

II To train the pupil into habits of correct, clear, 
and truthful expression, both in speech and in writing. 

The fulfillment of the second part of this object depends 
upon the fulfillment of the first. The successful teacher of 
composition is one who has realized that the quality of a pupil's 
expression depends upon the sources of that expression much 
more than upon its merely external correctness. His chief 
concern is therefore with these sources. It is these which he 
must develop and train. He must enlarge, purify, and reform 
them. In order to do this he must in some measure define 
them to himself. He will discover them to be the sum of a 
pupil's impressions, emotions, preferences, and convictions — 
in short, his entire spiritual being. He must endeavor to make 

* For outlined course of study in literature see section vn 



72 

a pupil more observant and sensitive, and to increase, in a right 
sense, his emotions, both in number and degree. He must 
help to develop a pupil's sense of values and his power of dis- 
crimination in all matters, especially between things good and 
bad. This implies some increase of a pupil's power in coherent 
and sequential thinking. For the character of the thought 
largely determines the nature of the language. If the thinking 
takes wide range, and is clear, direct, and vigorous, the lan- 
guage is likely to possess the same qualities. If the thinking 
is narrow, confused, hesitating, and feeble, these qualities will 
appear in the language. The teacher must try further to cor- 
rect a pupil's likes and dislikes, and to encourage in him a 
hearty allegiance to good things, and a hearty hatred of that 
which is bad. 

The proper teaching of literature has been found to be one 
of the best means of developing these sources of expression. 
But they may be manipulated and modified by a good teacher 
of any subject, by all personal relations of teacher to pupil, 
within school and without ; they may also be developed by the 
exercise in composition itself, for the effort to express thought 
or feelings reacts powerfully upon the mental faculties, calling 
them into vigorous activity and subjecting them to discipline. 

It is clear that if the teacher is to inspire and stimulate the 
pupil's expression by the means here suggested, the relation 
between the teacher and pupil must be a personal one. The 
teacher must study the individual, learn his peculiarities, and 
adapt himself to the pupil as far as circumstances will permit. 
He must remember that while many of the more external mat- 
ters of composition may be taught to his pupils collectively, 
yet the best of his teaching will be done through the appeal 
that he makes to the individual. 

The task thus far described is a difficult one. No teacher 
can accomplish it fully with any pupil during the high school 
course. These, however, are the lines along which it is neces- 
sary to work for right results, arid any success in this direction 
will appear not only in the pupil's mental and spiritual improve- 
ment, but in his readiness to learn to express himself clearly, 
accurately, and appropriately. This sort of training will in- 
crease freedom and facility in expression of his thought, and 
improve his language. In oral composition it will be easier 
to teach him clearness of enunciation and accuracy of pronun- 



73 

ciation. In written composition he will. the more readily and 
easily learn the correct use of capitals, correct punctuation, 
spelling, framing of sentences, and organization of discourse. 

EQUIPMENT AND PREPARATION OF A TEACHER OF COMPOSITION 

A good teacher of composition is probably rarer than a 
good teacher of any other subject. His equipment and prep- 
aration are therefore of great importance. Natural gifts for 
such work count for much, but a teacher who feels that he 
does not possess them should not despair. Certain personal 
qualities indispensable for a teacher of composition in second- 
ary grades may be cultivated. Such are delicacy, insight into 
character, adaptability to divers natures, sympathy — every- 
thing, in short, which is implied in tact — firmness and strict- 
ness in disciplinary matters of composition, lightness and de- 
tachment of spirit without actual levity; to these should be 
added graces of manner and personality. The spring cannot 
rise higher than its source. It is therefore clear that the teacher 
should exceed the pupil in all those powers which constitute 
the sources of expression ; that is, he should surpass him in the 
range and depth of his sympathies, should be more delicately 
susceptible to all impressions, should be capable of making 
truer and broader distinctions, of perceiving more essential 
resemblances and contrasts, and he should be preeminently a 
person devoted without compromise to that which is good. 

The means of grace are manifold and, for most part, easy. 
Some of these may be suggested. 

I One of the best is to see other teachers at work, and to 
talk over problems and difficulties with them privately. Servile 
and strict imitation of another's procedure is fatal in teaching 
composition, as in anything else. But the spirit of good teach- 
ing may most easily be caught in this way. Even the spectacle 
of bad teaching may be edifying. One may learn by it what 
not to do, or may have revealed to him, with startling vivid- 
ness, defects of his own work which had hitherto escaped his 
notice. 

II Advanced training in literature and language is con- 
tinually becoming more desirable. This does not mean neces- 
sarily that the teacher of English in the secondary school should 
be a doctor of philosophy or an investigator. The important 
object is twofold: (i) That the teacher of composition may 



74 

have a better sense than at present of the historical development 
of the language, especially as exhibited in the best literature. 
This seems necessary to reliable and sound judgment in mat- 
ters of usage, and basic to such sense of style as a teacher of 
English should possess. (2) That the literary judgment in 
the larger sense may be corrected and fortified. This implies 
such advanced work as involves the overhauling, revising, read- 
justment of one's standards of judgment in so far as they 
need it. In short, advanced work should be primarily acquisi- 
tive of power, and should tend to an expansion of the teacher's 
whole nature. 

Ill The teacher's spirit may be refreshed and liberalized, 
and his sense of values quickened, by frequent resort to the best 
literature, especially such as he does not happen to be teach- 
ing. In general, poetry will be found more efficient for this 
purpose than prose. One teacher, in moments of depression 
and weariness, refreshes himself from such sources as The 
Grammarian' s Funeral, Ulysses, The Lotos Eaters, and Sir 
Galahad. No prescription can be given, however. The teacher 
of composition at times feels his critical sense blunted by con- 
tinuous rubbing on the grosser matter of exercises and themes. 
There is no means of sharpening it better than to turn to prose 
which represents not only rare and exquisite style, but, what 
is better, real sincerity and freshness of utterance, and strong 
but well-disciplined and well-ordered passion. Bacon, Milton, 
Addison, Johnson, Burke, Boswell, Newman, Ruskin, are 
some of the more obvious possibilities. This expedient is rec- 
ommended not with the expectation that the teacher who adopts 
it shall try to make his pupils' performance measure up to the 
standard represented by these writers, or force upon them the 
attempt to imitate these masters in their style. Nothing could 
be more futile and discouraging than that. Rather should the 
practice help the teacher to get out of his rut, to stop picking 
altogether at minor faults while he allows the major faults to 
escape, to give vital criticism and really helpful suggestion 
where it is most needed ; in short, to do the legitimate wor of a 
teacher in a freer, easier, and better way. 

But contact with the best literature — " the literature of all 
time " — should be not merely occasional, but continual. 
Many teachers, even some who deplore the taste of their pupils, 
depend for their own reading almost entirely upon current 



75 

fiction and periodicals. No sign should be more alarming to 
the teacher than to find that great literature can no longer com- 
pete successfully with the ephemeral output of the present for 
his interest and sympathy, and that he turns to a perusal of it 
as to a disagreeable task. Nothing will undermine his stand- 
ards or dissipate his strength as a teacher more certainly than 
this. Immediate and decisive steps should be taken by him to 
correct any such tendency in himself, and the task will not be 
an easy one in this day of indifference to the classics and of 
popular demand for acquaintance with current literature at 
any cost. The reading of the best current literature is not 
inconsistent with the best taste, but its place should at all times 
be a secondary one; and, with all allowance for its cleverness 
and power to entertain, it should be judged by the same abso- 
lute standards which have determined the creation and preser- 
vation of the classics of literature. 



ii 
oral composition 

Of the two kinds of composition, oral and written, the 
latter receives, in most schools, far more attention than the 
former. That the reverse of this should be the case is now 
coming to be quite generally held. To most people, ability to 
talk well is of much greater value than ability to write well. 
People speak many times for every time they write; and a 
faultless enunciation and accurate pronunciation, a wide range 
and richness of vocabulary, the power of clear and concise 
statement, of graphic description and racy narration, of con- 
vincing argument and persuasive appeal, are evidences of re- 
finement, culture, and talent, and are potent aids to success in 
almost every calling. 

Moreover, ability to write well can best be acquired through 
mastery of the spoken language. Says Professor Palmer, 
" Through speech it is usually decided whether a man is to 
have command of his language or not. If he is slovenly in his 
ninety-nine cases of talking he can seldom pull himself up to 
strength and exactitude in his hundredth case of writing." 
Again, " Since the opportunities for oral practice enormously 
outbalance those for writing, it is the oral which is chiefly 
significant in the development of literary power." 



76 

The following excerpts from " The Teaching of English," 
by Principal Percival Chubb, enforce this same thought: 
" Oral composition, being so intangible and immeasurable, 
goes for little, although it is, in fact, the crucial, fundamental 
matter." " The basis of all literary training is oral. The ear 
is the arbiter of speech; the mouth, not the pen, its greatest 
instrument." " Of oral composition there should be much 
more than is ordinarily done in our schools, and it should be 
done more systematically and deliberately." 

The training given by the school in oral language should 
seek to stimulate and guide those intellectual, emotional, and 
volitional activities that are the true sources of all expression, 
to cultivate in pupils correct habits in the use of their mother 
tongue, and to help them acquire those pleasant tones, that 
nicety of enunciation, and that accuracy of pronunciation 
which are such valuable assets in after life. To accomplish 
these important objects, teachers must look well to the char- 
acter of their influence and instruction. 

The mastery of a spoken language is acquired largely 
through imitation. The most effective means of cultivating in 
children accuracy of speech is to place models of such speech 
before them. Of all such models the most influential, outside 
of the home, are those presented by the teacher. It is im- 
portant, therefore, that while teachers should avoid falling into 
the habit of using stilted and pedantic forms of expression they 
should as carefully shun the other extreme and rigorously 
exclude from their language all coarse slang, incorrect idioms, 
provincial phrases, and ungrammatical expressions. They 
should assiduously cultivate habits of simple and direct speech, 
seeking that perfect pronunciation, that pleasing enunciation, 
and that flexibility of tone which distinguish the cultivated 
person. 

Since, as has already been observed, the most intimate and 
vital connection exists between the character of thought and 
the expression of it, and since each powerfully reacts upon the 
other, the training of pupils in oral expression can belong ex- 
clusively to no one department, but must belong to all depart- 
ments of a school. Clearness and truthfulness in the expres- 
sion of thought, in proper voice, enunciation, and pronuncia- 
tion, should be as carefully exemplified and as strenuously 
insisted upon by the teacher of history, chemistry, physics, 



77 

mathematics, or a foreign language as by the teacher of Eng- 
lish; and the success of the teacher of any subject should be 
estimated, in no small measure, by the perfection he secures in 
the form as well as the substance of his pupils' recitations. 
There is no subject in the curriculum the teaching of which 
does not offer abundant opportunity for effective training in 
oral expression. The recitation in history affords an excel- 
lent opportunity for training in graphic narration; the recita- 
tion in natural science for training in vivid description; the 
recitation in physical science and mathematics for training in 
clear, concise exposition : while the recitation in an ancient or 
modern language affords unequaled opportunities for increas- 
ing the pupil's vocabulary, leading him to use words with dis- 
crimination, training him in the use of correct idioms, and culti- 
vating habits of clear, direct, forceful speech. 

It should be borne in mind, however, that every subject has 
a nomenclature that is peculiar to itself, and that it requires 
considerable time for some pupils to master a nomenclature 
'sufficiently to recall readily the appropriate word while reciting. 
In beginning a new subject, therefore, the teacher should give 
considerable attention to unfamiliar terms, making sure that 
their precise meanings are clearly understood. Fluency in 
reciting should not be expected from the first, especially from 
those pupils whose linguistic talents and aptitudes are limited. 
A certain degree of hesitation, stumbling, and circumlocution 
must be patiently endured for a time. The aim should be to 
help the pupil gradually to overcome the cause of his diffi- 
culty in reciting, and thus to enable him to talk with readiness 
and precision. At the same time that the speech is being made 
more exact and direct the thought is made clearer, more defi- 
nite, and critical. 

Unless every department of the school places emphasis 
upon the form as well as the substance of the pupil's recita- 
tions and thus helps to keep his linguistic conscience sensitive 
and make every effort his best, the department of English 
•can accomplish comparatively little in its endeavors to improve 
the speaking manners of the school. If the incomplete or in- 
coherent statement, the awkward or ungrammatical sentence, 
or the inappropriate word be invariably allowed to pass uncor- 
rected by the teachers of other subjects, the teacher of English, 
however well equipped for his work, can make little headway 



.78 

in supplanting the slouchy, slovenly, incoherent language into 
which many pupils are so likely to fall unless continually 
braced up to their best effort, with language that shall have 
precision, directness, and range. 

It is not meant that the pupil shall invariably or often be 
stopped in the midst of his recitation to correct the form of any 
statement, nor that after the recitation considerable time shall 
be devoted to pointing out errors in the construction of sen- 
tences or in the use of words. The former should rarely occur, 
and the latter not too frequently. All that is suggested here is 
that in the teacher's own way he keep his pupils sensitive to 
errors of speech and desirous of making every effort their best. 
If such a condition be present, an occasional correction, sug- 
gestion, and commendation will insure constant improvement. 
High school pupils repeatedly use highly involved sentences 
and loose constructions instead of short sentences and simple 
constructions ; they use " and " and " but " tens of times when 
they should use them only once ; they misplace adverbs, espe- 
cially such adverbs as " only " and " alone " ; they use ad- 
jectives for adverbs, and, less commonly, adverbs for adjec- 
tives; they mix the auxiliaries "can " and " may," " will " and 
" shall," " could " and " should " ; they use wrong forms of 
many verbs ; they use wrong cases of personal pronouns, wrong 
relatives, and make numerous other errors. Every teacher, 
whatever the subject he is teaching, can, by right methods in 
conjunction with other teachers, without the expenditure of 
considerable time, do much to correct all such errors and to 
improve the pupil's power to express himself. 

But while every teacher should thus be a teacher of Eng- 
lish, it is the special work of the English department of a 
school to train the pupils in facility and accuracy of speech. It 
is to this department that other departments should look for 
such suggestions and plans as will unify and make effective 
this common work of all. Frequent conferences should, of 
course, be held between the English teacher and the other 
teachers, that observations may be compared, suggestions 
offered, and plans formulated. 

Not only should the English department thus direct, in a 
sense and measure, this common work of all departments, but 
its special instruction should, by the subjects presented, the 
methods employed, and the spirit pervading it, be a powerful 



79 

influence in favor of clear, simple, and apt expression in all the 
exercises of the school and in the social intercourse of pupils. 
To become familiar with Shakespeare and Milton, Words- 
worth and Tennyson, Irving and Longfellow, to become ac- 
quainted with the people so vividly portrayed by them, is, for 
some, to pass through character-forming experiences, to have 
the springs of their being, their loves and hates, their ideals 
and aspirations, set powerfully in motion and in the right di- 
rection. It may also cause one's spiritual discernment to be 
quickened and clarified, and his emotional apprehension stimu- 
lated and sensitized. Thus the sources of all expression, the 
inner life of thought, emotion, and volition, are called into 
vigorous activity in harmony with truth and goodness. More- 
over, to become familiar with models of the purest English, as 
they exist in the masterpieces of English and American litera- 
ture, is one of the best means of enlarging one's vocabulary, 
and of understanding how to use language with propriety, 
precision, clearness, and force. 

But the efficient teacher of English will not confine his 
efforts to the mere teaching of English literature. Many ex- 
ercises will be given for the direct purpose of cultivating 
facility, correctness, and aptness of oral expression. The plot 
of some novel or of some narrative poem will be called for. 
Some humorous, tragic, or otherwise interesting incident, re- 
corded in some book, will be told. Some historical event may 
be recited. A scene or character from a novel or poem may be 
reproduced. A country scene — a village, building, typical 
country character, a mountain, lake, or brook, a country fair 
or picnic — may be described. Some street, park, building, or 
other object may be described. A sunset or sunrise, a thunder 
storm or snow storm, or some other phenomenon of nature 
may be portrayed as vividly as possible. Pupils may be called 
upon to express their opinions of a book or any character in a 
book; to state why they like this character and dislike that 
one; what value the book has, and why; what the author's 
apparent purpose was in writing the book; to what extent he 
succeeded or failed, and why. Much of the regular recitation 
work in literature affords practice in exposition, in analyzing 
and stating motives, explaining the conduct of characters, de- 
fending or condemning the same, tracing cause to effect and 
effect to cause. Occasionallv Questions mav be debated in the 



8o 

class. The questions should relate, for the most part, to the 
work in literature. The relative merits of two writers or of 
the writers of two periods, the comparative merits of two books 
or of two characters, and similar questions may be discussed. 

In all this work, pupils should be encouraged to talk in a 
connected, logical way, in complete sentences, in a well-modu- 
lated voice, with clear articulation, and not in disconnected 
and fragmentary sentences, in a stifled voice with a mumbling, 
inarticulate utterance. They should be made to feel that every 
oral recitation is a composition just as truly as if it were writ- 
ten, and that care should be taken to make it as perfect as 
possible. 

Of course, mltch instruction should be given in the art of 
good story-telling, of vivid description, of lucid exposition, and 
of convincing argument. Ability to select the main points of 
a story or the characteristic features of an object, to cause 
these to stand out in clear relief by a judicious selection and an 
artistic arrangement of details, to explain briefly and clearly 
so that others can understand, to argue with cogency and yet 
with due deference to an opponent, can ordinarily be acquired 
only through much instruction and practice. 

Not infrequently inability to talk well is due quite as much 
to paucity of words as to poverty of ideas. Special effort 
should, therefore, be made to extend the pupil's vocabulary. 
True, as Professor Laurie says, " The growth of mind and the 
growth of language go together." It is largely for this reason 
that the teacher of any subject must be, in some measure, a 
teacher of language. But to teach the meaning and use of a 
new word is to contribute to the possessions and possible 
growth of the mind. Says Professor Palmer, " Each word 
presents its own point of view, discloses a special aspect of 
things, reports some little importance not otherwise conveyed, 
and so contributes its small emancipation to our tied-up minds 
and tongues." Among the methods that may be employed for 
enlarging the vocabulary are the following: The study of 
synonyms and antonyms ; the building up of lists of such words 
as they occur in the literature ; their precise differences in 
meaning discovered, and practice in using them given. For 
instance, lists of words that name human emotions may be 
made and classified. Words that express the feelings toward 
God, man, country, dangers, etc. will appear, such as love, 



reverence, humility, meekness, lowliness, submissiveness ; kind- 
ness, sympathy, generosity, tolerance, magnanimity; patriot- 
ism, philanthropy, public spirit; courage, fearlessness, valor, 
intrepidity, heroism; their antonyms and many synonyms. 
Lists of the corresponding adjectives may be made; their pre- 
cise meanings ascertained, and applied in oral discourse. The 
reading of English masterpieces, especially prose, observing 
the language employed, noting the appropriateness of each 
important word and the effect of changing any one, is helpful. 

Freedom and ease in speaking before an audience may be 
cultivated by having pupils make brief addresses before the 
school or class on subjects ordinarily of their own choosing. 
Such an address may relate some historical incident, describe 
some personal experience, or explain some discovery or inven- 
tion ; or it may be in the nature of a resume of some book, an 
estimate of some person, a criticism or defense of some political 
policy, an exposition of the rules governing some athletic con- 
test, an account of some game ; or it may relate to anything in 
which the person appointed to give the address is interested. 

Debating societies may be made potent agencies for culti- 
vating ability to think and speak on one's feet. Pupils should 
be led to regard the form of an argument important as well as 
the substance, to see that the same ideas may be expressed 
forcibly or feebly, and that the impression produced depends 
no less upon the arrangement of the ideas and the language in 
which they are clothed than upon their pertinency to the points 
at issue. Instruction should be given the members of debating 
societies on the nature of argumentative discourse, the prepara- 
tion of briefs, and the most effective methods of presentation. 

Reporting the news of the day affords practice in concise, 
lucid statement in sufficient voice to be heard and in sufficiently 
clear enunciation to be understood. It provides, therefore, 
valuable practice in some elements of oral discourse in which 
pupils are commonly most deficient. In some schools a board 
of editors has entire charge of such reports. They determine 
what kind of news shall be reported, what classifications shall 
be made, what pupils shall serve from day to day, and offer all 
•criticisms upon each report. 



82 

III 

WRITTEN COMPOSITION 
LIMITS OF THE SECONDARY COURSE 

At the end of the high school course every pupil should be 
able to punctuate correctly, and to use capitals correctly ; he 
should have a sense of the divisions of a discourse, and of the 
nature of a paragraph ; he should be able to analyze and digest 
the simple oral or written discourse of others ; he should be able 
to arrange simple matter with a view to intelligent presenta- 
tion ; he should have caught a habit of expressing himself on 
the whole in sentences of simple form, even at the risk of 
monotony. This seems a fair minimum. The teacher should 
not make the frequent mistake of trying to accomplish too 
much. It is better to set a low minimum object which he aims 
to accomplish with every pupil. Yet a formal prescription in 
matters of composition is generally impracticable. More than 
this may be accomplished by perhaps the majority of pupils, 
certainly by many. The teaching must, as far as possible, be 
adapted to the proficiency of each individual, but with the inten- 
tion that in four years he shall have accomplished at least as 
much as is here described. 

The point of departure is next to be considered. What 
degree of proficiency may the secondary school assume in its 
pupils at the start? There will always be wide discrepancy 
in this matter, for, however definite the plan for training in 
composition in the grammar school, pupils on entering the high 
school will vary greatly in proficiency, as they vary in ability, 
or as the quality of their previous training has varied. Ac- 
cording to one teacher who speaks with authority, " The 
teacher who has the pupils in his presence soon feels his way. 
He grades his instruction as an opportunist, takes his ground 
on actual conditions, and will advance from the little that is 
known, no matter how little that is, to the next conquest in the 
unknown." 

PRELIMINARY SUGGESTIONS 

Definiteness and simplicity, not merely of aim, but of pro- 
cedure, is imperative. Not only should certain definite things 
have been accomplished by the end of each year, but the 
teacher should have a definite understanding with his class as 



S3 

to what he expects of them in each exercise. When the exer- 
cise which he is about to prescribe involves some new element 
or principle, he should find time in a previous recitation to 
work out such an exercise in outline with the help of the class, 
confining his own part as much as possible to question and sug- 
gestion. This will prevent much unnecessary blundering, and 
the exercise will be prepared with more spirit and profit than 
if the pupil were left entirely to his own resources. 

Besides the manual of composition used in the class (see p. 
93), the teacher should either own or have access to a little 
library of text-books as a source of suggestions, devices, sub- 
jects for written exercises, and expedients for teaching. An- 
other source of suggestion — the educational journals — 
should not be overlooked. They contain from time to time 
articles from the best teachers of composition which reveal 
more of the secret of their art than can be got in any other way 
except by personal interview, or the opportunity to watch them 
actually at work. 

The closest alliance should be maintained at all points be- 
tween the study of literature and the study of composition, 
between the instruction in the practice of getting and in the art 
of giving. While attempting to satisfy the claims of the one, 
the claims of the other should not be forgotten. A well- 
taught lesson in literature should add something to the pupil's 
art of expression in writing, just as a well-conducted exercise 
in composition should add something tq his appreciation of 
literature. 

In order that the work may not become retrograde, and that 
actual progress may to some extent be watched and measured, 
the use of a convenient exercise book for exercises and short 
themes is desirable. The practice of one teacher in this matter 
is described as follows, and may be taken as a model : " Each 
pupil in school has a college-binder theme-book, narrow enough 
for the book-strap. The lines run the long way of the page as 
in the old-time song-book, the front cover so hinged that it 
may be turned underneath. The paper may be removed or 
renewed from time to time. This style of composition-book 
I have used for ten years or more, and have found it satisfac- 
tory. No doubt there are other kinds equally good ; but of one 
thing I feel sure — a composition-book of some sort is neces- 
sary. It saves time and energy. To keep in mind week after 



84 

week the needs of one hundred fifty individuals is a difficult 
matter. But if the exercises of each are preserved in a binder 
the instructor can turn back from time to time and note what 
criticism has been made. ... It may be the exercise of 
to-day is very faulty, and the critic is tempted to be severe ; but 
by referring to the work of the week previous he notes that 
there has been an unmistakable effort to improve, attended by 
some small degree of success. Praise is a stronger incentive 
than censure. Or it may be that the theme is good, yet refer- 
ence to previous work shows that the writer is becoming care- 
less. This tendency must be checked at once. Or it is found 
that the same correction is being made over and over again 
without effect. This shows that the boy does not understand, 
or is indifferent, and in either case needs to be interviewed. 
In many ways, then, by having before him a history of the 
pupil's endeavor the instructor is able to comment with greater 
wisdom, and may save labor by saying the right thing at the 
right time." 

VARIOUS EXERCISES AVAILABLE FOR TRAINING IN COMPOSITION 

I Drill in grammar, sentence-structure, and the external 
matters of composition. As shown in the Course of Study, 
this work belongs to the training of the first year, and should 
constitute one of its most important elements. It should be the 
aim of this work to confirm the pupil in a knowledge of the 
principal grammatical relations, especially such as pertain to 
the commonest errors of speech, to fortify him against the com- 
mon errors of spelling, to train him in observing the principles 
of punctuation and capitalization, to insure his ability to dis- 
tinguish a sentence and its parts. The training of the first year 
should be such that afterwards the pupil's errors in these 
respects shall be errors of carelessness, not ignorance, and 
that he may with justice be held responsible for them. 

Allowance for the individual plays a less important part in 
teaching these matters than in more advanced work in compo- 
sition. The best method is well-illustrated, simple demonstra- 
tion in class, supplemented by an exercise assigned for prepara- 
tion outside. The nature of the text-book to be used is dis- 
cussed elsewhere (see p. 93). The blackboard, well-chosen 
examples, judiciously scattered questions to insure the coop- 
eration of the whole class, are the best means of demonstration. 



85 

One teacher writes that " the blackboard is a most effective 
agent in dispelling- ignorance ; it saves hours of time by head- 
ing off errors before they can occur. It is not easy to estimate 
how very much may be accomplished in a few minutes when 
every eye is focused upon one thing, and that something of 
importance." A good example of a common error in the 
papers, or an illustration of an important principle, may be 
selected and written on the board. The class should do most 
of the criticising, and, if a principle is involved with which 
the class should be more familiar, let them together formulate 
a statement of it, perhaps on the basis of a number of examples, 
and copy it down. 

But even in the matter of drill the individual cannot be over- 
looked altogether. The teacher should, throughout the whole 
four years, have an eye for persistent weakness or neglect on 
the part of the single pupil, and use the most vigorous and 
direct means he possesses of overcoming them. 

It has been customary to begin the high school course with 
a review of grammar. Such a review may perhaps be con- 
ducted with better results if the lessons are distributed here 
and there throughout the first or even the second year, and 
their topics are such as the work of the pupils shows to be 
necessary. Similarly a necessary principle in spelling or punc- 
tuation may be enforced as it is needed by lessons and exercises. 
Such exercises may be occasionally desirable in the second, or 
even the. third year, and time should be taken for them promptly 
as soon as the teacher is convinced of the need for them. 

II Unwritten exercises in the manipulation of matter in 
the recitation in literature. The recitation in literature, 
especially as conducted in the last two years, offers frequent 
opportunity for mental exercise of the very best kind for devel- 
oping skill in composition, even if such exercise seldom reaches 
the point of written expression. Such are analyses of narra- 
tive, exposition, or argument (see p. 68 for suggestions on this 
point), studies of contrast and resemblance, of cause and effect, 
of distinctions, motives, and the like. Care should be taken, 
however, not to allow the spirit and matter of the literature 
studied to be dominated or overcome by making such exercises 
too formal and difficult. 

III Memorizing. Intelligent memorizing of good pas- 
sages has not only its value as a help to appreciation of litera- 



86 

ture, but has been found to act as a subtle, but most effective, 
purifier of style. 

IV Written exercises in composition. Every art and de- 
vice of the teacher should be employed that every exercise in 
writing- should originate as far as possible in a pupil's inter- 
ests, sympathies, purposes, or convictions. No formal pre- 
scription can be given as a guide in this matter, since the 
teacher's spiritual equipment plays so large a part in it. A 
little success in it, even if won at first only by patience and 
long endeavor, leads to more rapid acquisition of skill, and 
manifold increase in profit to the pupil and delight to the 
teacher. It is an ideal worth trying for, whether it is wholly 
attainable or hot, that every pupil should be brought to feel the 
same pleasure in a good piece of his own writing that a girl 
sometimes takes in a fine piece of embroidery or a water-color 
drawing from her own hand, or the boy in a well-wrought 
device in iron or wood, the fruit of his best skill. 

The written work should never exceed in amount what the 
teacher can criticise with the spirit and freshness of judgment. 

Exclusive practice for an extended period in description, 
or in narration, exposition, or argument, seems unadvisable. 
In his conversation a pupil uses all these forms of discourse 
many times in the course of a day. To exclude all but one 
from his written work for periods of a whole year, or even half 
a year, seems not the most economical method of utilizing his 
powers in training him in expression. Tasks in description, 
narration, and the rest, in the form of short themes, may indeed 
be made to predominate through a short period of the course. 

During the first and second years, exercises in narration 
should far outnumber the others, though a well-planned and 
simple exercise in any of the other forms should occasionally 
be given — more frequently in the second year than in the first. 
The emphasis may be laid upon exposition and description in 
the third year ; in the fourth year, in connection with the study 
of Burke and Macaulay, upon argumentation. But in the last 
year girls may perhaps work more profitably in other forms 
than in argumentation. Exercises in all the forms should be 
continued to the end of the course. 

i Short exercises to be prepared out of class. 

a Reproduction. Such exercises are most useful for 
short themes. They may range from tasks of most simple 



3.7 

nature to those of great difficulty, and may be used to good 
advantage throughout the course. Simple reproduction 
should be a frequent exercise in the first year. In the second 
year, or as soon as the pupil is ready, it may be varied in char- 
acter with increasing opportunity for use of the imagination. 
A list of subjects used in connection with The Lady of the 
Lake in the second year will illustrate what may be done fur- 
ther in connection with the study of that and other texts : 

A leaf from the diary of Ellen Douglas 

A letter from Ellen to Lady Margaret, written at Stirling 

A letter from Ellen to Rose, daughter of John of Brent 

The King tells Douglas of his combat with Roderick 

Ellen Douglas as I see her when I shut my eyes 

Ellen's island home, as described by King James to a friend 

A follower of Mar tells, in the guardroom, of the battle 

A spectator tells of the Stirling games 

The good and the bad in Roderick's character 

The story of Alice Brand, told in prose 

The story of Blanche of Devan 

The magic ring: how Ellen came by it, and what it brought her 

In the third and fourth years more difficult exercises may be 
devised in the manipulation of subject-matter in forms of 
various length. The matter of a story, a play, a discussion, a 
biography, an argument, may be presented in fifty, one hun- 
dred, or two hundred words by each member of the class, with 
comparison of results, and urging of reasons for various in- 
clusions and exclusions. 

b Discussions in the class during the third and fourth 
years may furnish material for short themes. Care should be 
taken not to let the pupil feel that the discussion is being car- 
ried on chiefly with such an end in view. The discussions thus 
converted into writing should be the liveliest ones, and those in 
which the most general interest is taken. In assigning the 
task, some room should be left for the personal variation and 
interest of the pupil. He may choose to defend some point 
which he has made, or set forth his opinion more deliberately 
than in class. Themes may also consist of illustrations of some 
trait of character or some principle of art or style, these illus- 
trations being collected from reading, experience, or observa- 
tion, and carefully presented. Simple resumes of the important 
points in a discussion in class may sometimes be called for. 
The plans given in this report for the study of Silas Marner, 



88 

the De Coverley Papers, Burke's Speech on Conciliation, and 
a play suggest methods of study which could often be turned 
with no little advantage into written exercises. 

c Imitation (see p. 62) is another expedient well adapted 
to later years. 

d Reference books may be used as the source of material 
explaining allusions, customs, or the setting of narratives, pro- 
vided such precautions are taken as are mentioned elsewhere 
(see p. 63). The danger of such work is that it may become 
perfunctory, but if the pupil is really interested in the point or 
subject to be explained there can be no reasonable objection 
to it. 

e Many of the short exercises in composition may depend 
for other material on sources extraneous to the recitation in 
literature. One of the most useful of these is letter-writing. 
In the first and second years this exercise should be used most 
frequently, care being taken that the letters, as far as possible, 
be addressed to actual correspondents. In one instance a 
number of letters were written to the teacher during a short 
vacation — the exercise being, of course, entirely voluntary. 

Brief narratives of actual experiences, holidays, school 
events, and the like are common devices. 

The teacher should watch for a chance for interesting di- 
gression, in the course of which many diverse opinions, ex- 
periences, or observations may be drawn from members of the 
class. Besides its incidental value in expression, pupils may 
often return from such an excursus to a more vivid perception 
of values in the literature which they are studying. Occa- 
sionally a happily chosen topic, quite apart from the literature 
in hand, may be suggested early in the period, perhaps in the 
artful form of a quest for information, the class lured into a 
discussion, and out of it may grow in a few minutes varied 
opportunities for exercise in all the categories of discourse. 

The earlier exercises in exposition and description should 
draw upon the simplest and most familiar experiences or ac- 
complishments of the pupil, and in argument upon events or 
issues in which he is concerned. The following is an example 
of an exercise in description in a first-year class : 

The teacher asked whether it was easier to describe an 
object from real life or from a picture. The class had tried 
both and were of various opinions and reasons which they were 



8 9 

eager to express. The teacher then handed around Cosmos 
copies of a simple subject and the class entered upon an equally 
animated discussion of how one would proceed to get this scene 
before a listener without showing him the picture. When the 
discussion had run the profitable length, the results were sum- 
marized with the help of the class ; different pictures were then 
handed to each pupil, with some thought of adapting the sub- 
ject to the individual, and the task of writing a description of 
this picture assigned for the next time. In the few remaining 
minutes, descriptions previously written were read by their 
writers and the corresponding picture then handed about, fol- 
lowed by such critical comment as the comparison inspired. 

2, Long themes at least once a term. 

The sources of material for short exercises may sometimes 
serve as sources for the longer themes. In the case of the 
latter more freedom may be allowed in the choice of a subject. 
Since the effort in longer themes is more sustained and the 
work more independent of the restrictions of the classwork, it 
is the more desirable that subject and writer should be con- 
genial. A personal conference of pupil with teacher in this 
matter would often be desirable, but in most cases time for it 
is not to be found. Many well^adapted subjects may be turned 
up by rummaging lists in text-books and elsewhere. More 
may be accomplished by developing a little alertness — what 
may be called a sense for subjects — so that with a little prac- 
tice and no appreciable loss of time or expense of energy the 
life of the street, the country, the school, the household will 
reveal undreamed possibilities and become prolific with topics 
where hitherto they were barren. An intelligent and curious 
pupil will catch the spirit of this practice. In one instance 
where they did, the teacher ventured to call for lists of sub- 
jects which the class thought would be suitable. He confessed 
that those submitted were better than any he could get for 
them. This class was in its third year. What has already 
been said of the use of material found in reference books and 
magazines is equally applicable to the preparation of a long 
theme. 

It is sometimes insisted that the pupil should write with a 
definite audience in mind. An imaginary definite audience, 
however, proves to be as bad as none at all. If the pupil may 
write to a real audience, very well. Such an audience may be 



9 o 

his teacher, or, better still, the little community of class and 
teacher. It may require the utmost skill and patience to culti- 
vate the spirit of an interested audience in his class, to make 
them eager to listen while one of the number is eager to speak 
or read, but it has been done, and that, too, with a somewhat 
incongruous gathering of pupils. 

CRITICISM AND COMMENT 

In his critical comment, a teacher should in general measure 
a theme by a standard slightly above the best of which the 
pupil is capable. The usual error, even among some experi- 
enced teachers, is to expect too much. Great models whose 
excellence is unattainable may often inspire a humbler workman 
with enthusiasm and new energy. They may be a continual 
tonic and corrective to the teacher in his work of criticism, and 
exert an unconsciously purifying effect upon the pupil's mode 
of expression. But to expect mature thought from an im- 
mature mind, or elegance, grace, wealth of vocabulary, variety 
of sentence structure, or anything that is called style according 
to the more exact use of the word, from any but most excep- 
tional students in any year of the secondary school — to expect 
all this will yield a futile criticism of themes, and result in 
failure and disgust for the teacher, and discouraged indiffer- 
ence for the pupil. A tactful teacher will quickly learn the 
needs of the individual pupil and discover how far it is worth 
wdiile to go. He will learn the use of positive criticism, sug- 
gesting, on the basis of present failure or defect, what it would 
be better to do another time. Let the teacher beware of hobbies 
in the matter of usage, especially where authorities disagree. 
Criticism must aim at something greater than merely the elim- 
ination of the split infinitive or such expressions as " it's me," 
" he don't," or the perfectly idiomatic and correct " had better." 
Details cannot be neglected, especially in the first year, but they 
should not be allowed to swamp considerations of general 
nature, such as order, simplicity, and clearness. 

The criticism of written work should be as prompt as 
possible. One teacher writes that he makes it a point to come 
to class fresh from the reading of themes, with each theme and 
its virtues and defects distinctly in mind. 

Obvious and careless errors in punctuation, spelling, gram- 
mar — where they involve principles already taught and re- 



9i 

iterated — and all slovenliness, should be treated without 
mercy. The blackboard, as already indicated, is often useful in 
this matter. 

A pupil should make his own corrections of detail as much 
as possible. As he gains proficiency, more and more of the 
task of correction should be left to him. This, of course, does 
not excuse the teacher from inspection of themes. In the 
earlier work the teacher may indicate exactly the place in the 
theme and the nature of the necessary correction. Later he 
may indicate the line and partially define the nature of the 
error, leaving- the pupil to discover and correct it. One teacher 
says, " I have simplified the work of correcting long themes 
by applying the principle that if the first page is poorly spelled 
and punctuated it is morally certain that the second page will 
illustrate the same faults. I therefore refuse to read further 
until the pupil has revised his whole paper in the light of my 
corrections on the first page. This lightens my own labor and 
stimulates the careless pupil." The same teacher describes the 
cheap device of stamps for marking the commonest faults. 
" I find," he says, " that they save nerve force. Early in the 
year I stamp beneath the offending word ; later in the margin 
opposite the word; later still at the top of the paper, leaving 
the pupil to locate his error." 

COOPERATION WITH OTHER STUDIES 

Much has been said at various times concerning the coop- 
eration of all departments of instruction in the campaign 
against illiteracy and the effort to improve expression. This 
is most reasonable in theory, since expression is a matter of 
the pupil's whole life and experience, and any improvement 
therein involves continuous exertion of influences for the bet- 
ter, against the continuous influences upon him for the worse. 
The endeavor of a brief period three or four times a week is not 
likely to win sudden and brilliant victories in this struggle, be 
the teacher never so skillful. But the greatest difficulty is usu- 
ally met in any attempt to bring about such cooperation. 
Teachers of other subjects, though vociferous in their com- 
plaints of bad English from their pupils, and in their criticism 
of the instruction in English, seem quite imperturbed when a 
pupil commits oral or written outrage in their classes, and suffer 
it to pass without comment. The pupil will therefore use his 



9 2 

best English only for his teacher of English, and will even ques- 
tion the right of a teacher of Latin or science to interfere with 
his irregular practice at other times. To say nothing of the 
opportunities in the study of science and history for improve- 
ment in expression, what splendid training a student might de- 
rive in the use of English idiom from exercises in translation. 
One experienced teacher of secondary English complains that 
those of his pupils who study the classics become actually retro- 
grade in writing English, and fall far behind those who are free 
from this influence. Another teacher of literature in one of 
the larger colleges is greeted with incredulous laughter if he 
dares to cite Xenophon's Anabasis or Gesar's Commentaries 
as examples of great literature. One may profitably wonder 
what comment Milton, Addison, Johnson, Macaulay, or New- 
man would have to make upon this. We must do the best we 
can with these conditions, not expecting to change them greatly, 
but exerting every legitimate means to make matters better in 
this respect in the long run. If the character of the teacher 
is right, and such as dominates the lives of his pupils, his 
influence will extend into other classrooms, into the home, even 
into the more thoughtless and careless region of the play- 
ground, and perhaps it is best for him to be content to work 
in this way. 

OPPORTUNITIES IN THE SMALL HIGH SCHOOL 

It remains to mention the exceptional opportunity for the 
teaching of composition which is open to teachers in a small 
high school. Work in composition at its best is largely a 
matter between teacher and individual pupil. The teacher of 
a small number of pupils has in this one respect at least a 
great advantage over his fellow craftsmen in the larger schools 
of the cities. Furthermore, the teacher who instructs in other 
subjects besides composition has it within his power to extend 
his line of guard against illiteracy and enforce more contin- 
uously the natural discipline of composition. If he happens 
to be directing the pupil's work in other subjects besides Eng- 
lish, his chance is by so much increased to observe the various 
directions of his interests, to encourage them, broaden them, 
refine them, discipline them ; in short, to know him better, to 
draw him out more successfully, and to render him the best 
services which lie within a teacher's power. 



93 



VII 



SUGGESTIONS FOR COURSES IN LITERATURE 
AND COMPOSITION 



REGULAR COURSE 
FIRST YEAR 

(Three recitations a week) 

An old-fashioned " reader " or volume of selections 
A manual of composition 

Time should be divided between practice in plain oral read- 
ing and practice in simple oral and written composition, the 
immediate purpose being to cultivate in the pupil, through 
arousing his interest and through abundant drill, the habit of 
taking pains. This painstaking embraces silent reading, read- 
ing aloud for the pleasure of others, and expressing one's self 
orally and in writing. Much of the drill must necessarily be 
of a mechanical nature. 

The manual of composition should be simple, paying little 
attention to theory, but furnishing abundant material for prac- 
tice in easy narration, description, exposition, and argument. 
It may well contain chapters on spelling, punctuation, gram- 
matical purity, the effective use of connectives and introductory 
words in sentence building, correct form in letter writing, etc. 
By the end of the year the pupil should be able to write a letter 
correct in form, and do other tasks in simple composition. 

The " reader " should contain many short selections, prose 
and poetry, interesting in character and appropriate for drill 
in oral interpretation. Of the few books now on the market, 
none is ideal ; perhaps Heart of Oak vi or vn comes nearest to 
what the committee has in mind. Whatever the book selected, 
it should be freely supplemented, the teacher reading to the 
class at least once a week. Suggestions for supplementary 
reading for this and succeeding years will be found on page ioi. 
Memorizing should receive attention throughout the course. 

By the close of the year the pupil should be able to use 
intelligently the following terms: narration, exposition, de- 
scription, argument. To these may be added simile, metaphor, 
personification, and, unless the teacher prefers to delay a year, 
the simpler terms of versification. 



94 

SECOND YEAR 

(Three recitations a week) 

Twice Told Tales 

Rime of the Ancient Mariner 

Ivanhoe 

Merchant of Venice 

Lady of the Lake 

A manual of composition (continued) 

Practice in oral and written composition continues, the 
text-book still in the hands of the pupils. The drill should be 
similar in character to that recommended for the first year, 
departing from it in difficulty rather than in kind. There 
should be ten-minute drill in class, short exercises calling for 
the writing of two or three paragraphs at home, and at least 
once a term an old-fashioned composition of perhaps six hun- 
dred words. Here, as in the first year, the subject-matter 
should be suggested, for the most part, by actual experience, 
and call for all four kinds of composition : narration, descrip- 
tion, exposition, and argument. 

Not all of every masterpiece assigned for study need be 
read in class, Ivanhoe in particular being much too long for 
this purpose; nevertheless, systematic attention should be paid 
to oral interpretation. This should be supplemented by in- 
formal classroom discussion, the pupils being encouraged to 
talk freely about what they read. This talk should be almost 
too simple to be called literary criticism; yet the class should 
by degrees be led to look upon each masterpiece as a work of 
art and to talk about it as such. 

The following terms may well be added to the pupil's vocab- 
ulary : climax, catastrophe, contrast, suspense, surprise ; allit- 
eration, onomatopoeia, assonance ; ballad, lyric, drama ; alle- 
gory, parable, fable. 

THIRD YEAR 

(Three recitations a week) 

De Coverley Papers 

Macbeth 

Silas Marner 

Life of Goldsmith 

Idylls of the King (selections) 

Vision of Sir Launfal 

Practice in composition continues, subjects being taken 
freely from the works read. Special attention should be paid 



95 

throughout the year to skilful paragraph building, and to oral 
discourse. This latter may take the form of formal discus- 
sion, or of reports on matters of general interest. At least 
once a term a carefully prepared composition of about eight 
hundred words should be called for. Perhaps it would be well 
if each pupil were asked to present an oral report of some sort 
each term. 

The masterpieces assigned for this year should be read 
somewhat critically, definite attention being paid to Certain 
simple laws governing the essay, the novel, and the drama. 
There is danger, 'however, in giving the work too technical a 
character. Increasing attention should be paid to the history 
of literature, the teacher losing no opportunity to point out the 
relationship of masterpiece to masterpiece, thereby fixing in 
mind the chronological sequence. 

The following terms are suggested for the pupil's working 
vocabulary: clearness, force, beauty; unity, mass, coherence; 
periodic, loose, balanced ; epigram, epithet. Probably all these 
terms are needed earlier in the course. They are placed here 
because it is thought that by the third year they should be so 
very familiar that pupils may be expected to use them freely. 

FOURTH YEAR 

(Three recitations a week) 

Julius Caesar 

L'Allegro, II Penseroso 

Gomus, Lycidas 

Macaulay's Essay on Johnson 

Speech on Conciliation with the Colonies 

Macaulay's Essay on Addison ■ * 

Exposition and argument should be given prominence in 
the written work of the year. There should be fewer short 
written exercises, attention being centered in theme construc- 
tion. At least once a term a composition of about eight hun- 
dred words should be called for. In addition to this, the class 
working in cooperation with the teacher should plan many 
compositions. Oral work, too, should receive definite atten- 
tion, a debate or a report frequently forming a part of the 
recitation. 

An important part of the work should consist in gathering 
up and organizing the scraps of information acquired during 



9 6 

previous years concerning the history of literature and the laws 
that have governed its development. Were there an appro- 
priate history of literature available, the committee would 
recommend its use as a work of reference during the third 
and fourth years. Perhaps here better than at any other time 
during the four years helpful suggestions can be offered in 
regard to what the pupils may with profit read after their 
school days are over. 

The pupil's vocabulary may be increased by adding the 
terms used in argumentation, and a few terms descriptive of 
stvle. 

II 

ELECTIVE COURSE FOR LAST TWO YEARS 

THIRD YEAR 

(Five recitations a week) 

Julius Caesar 

Silas Marner 

De Coverley Papers 

Tennyson's Poems (selections) 

Vicar of Wakefield 

Palmer's Self-Cultivation in English 

As You Like It 

A Tale of Two Cities 

The Elective Course for the third year need differ in char- 
acter but little from the General, except that the two additional 
recitatioms a week make it possible to cover a wider field and 
give more attention to oral and written composition. 

FOURTH YEAR 

(Five recitations a week) 

The work of this year calls for a general survey of all Eng- 
lish literature, with a manual as guide book. The manual 
should be a simple one, and be used sparingly, most of the time 
being devoted to the masterpieces themselves. Of these master- 
pieces, a few should be studied with care, others simply read 
by the class or to the class, still others talked about and re- 
served for future reading. Palgrave's Golden Treasury, now 
issued by Macmillan in twenty-five cent edition, is recom- 
mended as a necessary companion to the text-book on the his- 



97 

tory of English literature. The following course is purely 
suggestive, and needs modification to meet the wants of any 
given class. It is based upon a recent experiment. 

I BEFORE THE CONQUEST f 

Beowulf 

Tell the story to the class, and read selections from some good 
translation. Perhaps Tinker's prose rendering is best. See 
Brooke's History of Early English literature. 

The Seafarer 

Read to the class. See Cook's Translations from Early Eng- 
lish Poetry. 

Bede's account of Caedmon 

Read to the class. See Cook's Translations from Early Eng- 
• lish Poetry. 

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 

Read brief selections to the class from any good translation. 

II FROM THE CONQUEST TO SPENSER 

Wiclif's Bible 

Read a chapter to the class. To show the peculiarities in spell- 
ing, print a few lines on the blackboard. 

Chaucer's Prologue and the Nonnes Preestes Tale 

Do not attempt close linguistic study, but try to captivate the 
• class through Chaucer's skill as a story-teller and through the 
melody of his verse. To do this well one must be fond of Chau- 
cer, and able to read his verse melodiously and with approxi- 
mately correct pronunciation. Pupils memorize Chaucer's lines 
with little difficulty, apparently attracted by their quaintness. 

Malory's Morte d' Arthur 

Show the class, if possible, a facsimile of a page from the 
Caxton edition. Read a little to the class, and have one or two 
of the tales retold by special assignment. 

Ill FROM SPENSER TO DRYDEN 

Spenser's Faerie Queene 

Tell the story of the twelve books as planned by the author, 
read selections to the class from the first two books, and assign 
a stanza to be memorized. 

Shakespeare's Macbeth 

Study thoroughly. 



98 

Bacon's Essays 

Study two or three in class. Recommend others for volun- 
tary reading. Have one pupil report on the titles of all the es- 
says, for the purpose of showing Bacon's range. Have another 
report on all the opening sentences, for the purpose of showing 
Bacon's method of starting an essay. Make frequent comparison 
between Addison and Bacon. 

Elizabethan Lyrics 

Select a few from those found in Palgrave's Golden Treasury. 
Read some to the class, have others read by the class, and talk 
about them informally, comparing them with the songs of the 
present day. One or two recitations only. 

Milton's Minor Poems and Paradise Lost 

Tell to the class the story of the twelve books of Paradise 
Lost, and read a few selections from the first two books. * Have 
the class read, perhaps study, the Lyrics. Comus should be read 
aloud, much of it by the teacher. 

Carolinian Lyrics 

Take a single hour for a consideration of a few of the best. 

Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress 

Have a member of the class read it and offer a report. 

IV FROM DRYDEN TO JOHNSON 

Dryden's Alexander's Feast 

Study. 
Addison and Steele's Spectator Papers 

Previously studied. 
Swift's Gulliver's Travels 

Have a member of the class read perhaps half of the book, 
and give a report thereon, reading a few passages aloud. 

Defoe's Robinson Crusoe 

Treat as Gulliver's Travels. 
Pope's Rape of the Lock 

Read all of it, or parts, to the class, pointing out the qualities 
which make it characteristic of the early eighteenth century. 
Pupils enjoy this. 

V FROM JOHNSON TO SCOTT 

Johnson's Rasselas 

Report by member of the class. 

Gray's Elegy 

To be read by the class and studied, but not too savagely. 



99 

Goldsmith's Deserted Village, Vicar of Wakefield, and She Stoops 
to Conquer 

Vicar of Wakefield previously read. Have report on She 
Stoops to Conquer. Read aloud, earnestly, to the class, Deserted 
Village. 

Burns's Lyrics 

Read a few in class. Have one or two memorized. They 
cannot with profit be " studied." 

VI FROM SCOTT TO TENNYSON 

Scott's Ivanhoe and Lady of the Lake 

Previously studied. 

Wordsworth's Poems 

Read in class selections from the poems found in the Golden 
Treasury. Have one or two of the shorter poems memorized. 
Experience shows that if the Ode on Immortality is read feel- 
ingly by the teacher, an interpretation accompanying the reading, 
pupils like it, and think that they comprehend it. 

Byron's Poems 

Study a few of the selections found in the Golden Treasury. 
Pupils listen intently to a reading of Mazeppa's Ride, Prisoner 
of Chillon, and certain selections from Childe Harold, IV. 

Coleridge's Ancient Mariner 

Previously studied. 

Shelley's Shorter Poems 

Select from the Golden Treasury. Study one or two in class. 

Keats's Shorter Poems as found in Golden Treasury 

Pupils listen attentively to a reading of Lamia and Eve of St. 
Agnes. 

Lamb's Essays of Elia 

Read and study — not too closely — some of the simpler es- 
says. Compare with Bacon and Addison. 

VII FROM TENNYSON TO STEVENSON 

Dickens's Tale of Two Cities 
Previously read. 

George Eliot's Silas Marner 

Previously read. 

Thackeray 

Perhaps too difficult for high school age, though some enjoy 
English Humorists. Reserved for future reading. 



100 

Macaulay's Life of Johnson 

Read in class, somewhat rapidly. 

Carlyle 

Too difficult for high school age; reserved for future reading. 
Ruskin 

Read selections to the class. It is extremely difficult to make 
boys and girls like Ruskin, especially his Sesame and Lilies. 

Tennyson's Poems 

Previously studied. 

Arnold's Balder Dead 

Read to the class. Recommend Sohrab and Rustum. 

Browning's Poems 

Study somewhat thoroughly a few of the simpler ones found 
in any of the many editions prepared for high school use. 

VIII AMERICAN LITERATURE 

Familiar selections 

Many of the American classics are read in the Grammar 
Grades. It seems wise, however, to give the pupils, just before 
they leave school, a superficial review, with generous sugges- 
tions regarding what they may well read in coming years. 
Perhaps this is best accomplished through informal talks, ac- 
companied by the reading of a few of the old familiar pieces. 
A volume issued by Houghton, Mifflin & Co. contains selections 
from thirteen American authors. The writer of this section of 
the report has found that House of Seven Gables is an ad- 
mirable work for classroom study. Most pupils can be interested 
in Thoreau through hearing selections from Walden read aloud. 

From Beowulf to Browning is a long journey, and the 
teacher must be content with what, looked at in one way, may 
be called grossly superficial work. And yet, since most of 
those who elect this course do not intend to go to college, there 
seems to be sufficient reason for making it a nibbling course 
calculated to tempt the pupils to continue profitable reading 
after school days are over. A more difficult course can easily 
be made by cutting out all but a few of the masterpieces men- 
tioned above, and studying these few closely. The work as 
planned need not, however, encourage habits of shiftlessness. 

The composition work of the year should not differ ma- 
terially from that prescribed for the Regular Course, except 
as it takes color from the character of the masterpieces studied. 



101 



III 



SUPPLEMENTARY READING 

No matter how great the masterpiece, its success depends 
upon the power of the reader to receive its message. A teacher 
soon learns how greatly individuals differ in this respect, and 
how a given individual is now impressionable, now immovable, 
according to the mood he is in. There is, therefore, in teach- 
ing English, no certainty of getting results commensurate with 
the amount of energy expended; and it is this element of un- 
certainty which makes the work at once fascinating and ex- 
asperating. Because of this element of uncertainty there is a 
reasonable excuse for what may be called gambling, or, if the 
term offends, angling. By this we mean turning aside from 
the work in hand, now and then, to spend a few minutes, or 
even an hour, in reading to the class or in talking to them 
about books with a view to encouraging voluntary reading. 
We may imagine that the teacher often performs his highest 
duty in just such random efforts. It is hoped that the follow- 
ing lists will prove suggestive to some, though of course it is 
true that each instructor knows better than anyone else what 
he can with profit offer his pupils. The works assigned for 
study in the courses outlined above are purposely few in num- 
ber that time may remain for this supplementary reading. 



FIRST YEAR 



Inchcape Rock .... 
After Blenheim .... 

Herve Riel 

How they brought the good news 

Incident of the French camp 

The burial of Sir John Moore . 

Great expectations 

The talisman 

Treasure island 

King of the golden river 

Adventures of Ulysses 

The jungle books . 

The great carbuncle 

Pepacton 

An idyl of the honey-bee 

Conspiracy of Pontiac . 



Southey 

Southey 

Browning 

Browning 

Browning 

Wolfe 

Dickens 

Scott 

Stevenson 

Ruskin 

Lamb 

Kipling 

Hawthorne 

Burroughs 

Burroughs 

Parkman 



102 



SECOND YEAR 



Abou Ben Adhem .... 

The sands of Dee 

The loss of the Birkenhead . 

Ye banks and braes o' bonnie Doon 

Three fishers .... 

The death of the flowers 

To a waterfowl . 

Oliver Twist 

Kenilworth 

Kidnapped 

The Greek heroes 

The bottle imp 

Rappaccini's daughter 

Montcalm and Wolfe 

Conquest of Granada 

The Oregon trail . 

Birds and bees 

Life of Dickens . 



Hunt 

Kingsley 

Doyle 

Burns 

Kingsley 

Bryant 

Bryant 

Dickens 

Scott 

Stevenson 

Kingsley 

Stevenson 

Hawthorne 

Parkman 

Irving 

Parkman 

Burroughs 

Forster 



THIRD YEAR 

Heather ale : a Galloway legend 

The private of the Buffs 

Helvellyn .... 

The forsaken merman 

Highland Mary 

The humble bee 

The Revenge 

The lost leader 

Twelfth night 

The taming of the shrew 

She stoops to conquer . 

The rivals .... 

A New England girlhood . 

The story of my life . 

The story of my life 

A life of William Shakespeare 

An inland voyage 

A leaf of spearmint (Little rivers) 

Love's meinie 

A bunch of herbs (A year in the field) 

My summer in a garden 

Gray days and gold 

English lands, letters, and kings 

The Odyssey (translation) 

David Copperfield 

The monastery 



Stevenson 

Doyle 

Scott 

Arnold 

Burns 

Emerson 

Tennyson 

Browning 

Shakespeare 

Shakespeare' 

Goldsmith 

Sheridan 

Lucy Larcom 

Helen Keller 

Andersen 

Lee 

Stevenson 

Van Dyke 

Ruskin 

Burroughs 

Warner 

Winter 

Mitchell 

Palmer 

Dickens 

Scott 



103 



The abbot . . . . . . Scott 

Mill on the floss George Eliot 

The Merry Men Stevenson 

Dr. Jekyl and Mr. Hyde .... Stevenson 

Gulliver's travels ...... Swift 

Pilgrim's progress Bunyan 

Don Quixote Cervantes 

^Esop and Rhodope (Imaginary conversations) Landor 

Picciola Saintine 

Fanciful tales Stockton 

Masque of the red death .... Poe 

Jean-ah Poquelin . . . . . . Cable 

Tales of New England . . . . Jewett 

A doctor of the old school . . . Watson 



FOURTH YEAR 

McAndrew's hymn 

Muleykeh .... 

Ozymandias of Egypt . 

I wandered lonely as a cloud 

The world is too much with us 

Methought I saw the footsteps of a throne 

The lost duchess . 

Eve of St. Agnes . 

Lamia 

Ode to duty . 

Cyrano de Bergerac 

Herod 

Hamlet 

Dombey and son . 

Pride and prejudice 

Evelina 

Will o' the mill . 

The birth mark 

The man who would be king 

The procession of life 

Adam Bede . 

Heart of Midlothian 

The Iliad (translation) 

A Christmas sermon 

The Silverado squatters 

Self-reliance . 

Prue and I . 

Utopia . 

Harbours of England 

Modern painters . 

Queen of the air . 

Reply to Playne . 



Kipling 

Browning 

Shelley 

Wordsworth 

Wordsworth 

Wordsworth 

Browning 

Keats 

Keats 

Wordsworth 

Rostand 

Phillips 

Shakespeare 

Dickens 

Austen 

Burney 

Stevenson 

Hawthorne 

Kipling 

Hawthorne 

George Eliot 

Scott 

Lang, Leaf, and Meyer 

Stevenson 

Stevenson 

Emerson 

Curtis 

More 

Ruskin 

Ruskin 

Ruskin 

Webster 



104 



The White murde 


r trial 






Webster 


Essay on Burns . 






Carlyle 


Conquest of England . 






Green 


Questions of empire 






Rosebery 


Rise of the Dutch republic . 






Motley 


Essay on Swift 






Johnson 


Life of Henry Clay 






Schurz 


Essays in idleness 






Repplier 


English humorists 






Thackeray 


Literary ethics 






Emerson 


Walden 








Thoreau 


Our best society 








Curtis 


The gentle reader 








Crothers 


Margaret Ogilvy 








Barrie 


On a peal of bells 








Thackeray 


Hard fare 








Burroughs 


A good word for winter 






Lowell 


Life of Fannie Burney 






Dobson 


On friendship ... 






Cicero 


Autocrat of the breakfast table 






Holmes 


Calvin . . . . 






Warner 


Life of Scott (passim) 






Lockhart 


Life and letters of Lord Macaulay 




Trevelyan 


Life of Samuel Jo 


mson (passim 


) 




Boswell 



American men of letters series 
English men of letters series 
American statesmen series 



VIII 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 



The following works have been found helpful by various 
members of the committee. A much longer list appears in 
The teaching of English in the elementary and the secondary 
school, mentioned below. Teachers having access to Academy, 
Atlantic Monthly, Education, Educational Review, Journal of 
Education, Journal of Pedagogy, and School Review will find 
in these magazines occasional articles of value. The leaflets 
issued monthly durinsr the school year bv the New England 



105 

Association of English Teachers, and the annual reports of the 
State Board of Education contain many helpful suggestions. 

Sentence method of teaching 
reading, writing, and spell- 
ing Farnham Geo L Bardeen, Syracuse, 

N Y 

A good manual for teachers. The author advocates the sentence 
method, but the principles may be applied to either word or sentence 
method. 

Reading: a manual for teach- 
ers Laing ME DC Heath 

An excellent presentation of principles. Many " practical illustra- 
tions are given. 

Special method in the reading 
of complete English classics 
in the common schools McMurray Chas Pub sch pub co 

Presents a method of teaching reading and suggests books to be read 
in the several grades of schools. Helpful to inexperienced teachers. 

Educational law of reading and 
writing Scudder H E Atlantic Monthly 

(1894), vol 73 
P 252 
A good article dealing with just what the title states. Method is 
not presented. 

Teaching the language arts Hinsdale D Appleton & Co 

Chapters 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 contain little of method, but explain the 
principles upon which the art of reading is based and what reading 
ought to ntean to the teacher. 

Introduction to Heart of oak 

books Books II, III, IV, V, 

VI Norton C E DC Heath 

This introduction (the introduction is the same in all of the books) 
presents in a clear, consise manner the function of good reading and 
what it ought to do for the child. . Nothing of method is suggested. 

Talks to teachers Chap 9 — 

The association of ideas 

Chap 10 — Interest James Henry Holt & Co 

These chapters do not give a method of teaching reading, but a 
teacher who understands what is presented in these chapters can devise 
a method of her own. They contain strong, helpful suggestions. 

The aims of literary study Corson Macmillan & Co 

A book in which the distinction is clearly made between literary 
knowledge and literary culture. A good book for teachers who are 
. working with advanced pupils. 

The voice and spiritual educa- 
tion Corson Macmillan Co 
This book emphasizes, the importance of vocal culture in its relation 
to literary culture. 
Talks on pedagogics Parker E L Kellogg & Co, 

p 188-223 

The different systems of teaching reading are explained and sug- 
gestions are made to the teacher as to manner of teaching reading. 

The teaching of English in the 
elementary and the second- 
ary school Chubb Macmillan Co 



io6 



Literature in schools 



Scudder 



A helpful book for teachers of all grades. 
How to teach reading in the 
public schools Clark S H 



The book lover 

The teaching of English in the 

elementary and the secondary 

school 

The last thirty pages of 
the subject. 

Elementary guide to literary 

criticism 
Self-cultivation in English 
The conduct of composition 

work in grammar schools 
Some principles of literary 

criticism 



Baldwin 



Carpenter, Baker, 
& Scott 

this book are devoted 



Painter 
Palmer 

Clapp & Huston 

Winchester 



Houghton, Mifflin 
& Co 



Scott, Foresman 

& Co 
McClurg & Co 



Longmans, Green 
& Co 

to a bibliography of 

Ginn & Co 
T Y Crowell 

D C Heath 

Macmillan Co 



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